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Exam III, Gymnosperm Tissue Placement, Same Behavior, An example of this…

- - - - 2+ whorls of anthers
    - - 5+ carpels
  - - - Male plants
      - Female Plants
  - - - Original spiral arrange no longer evident
      - Floral parts often fused
    - - Perianth has become differentiated in distinct calyx & corolla
  - - - Complete flowers have all four floral appendages:
        
        Petals, sterile
        
        Attract pollinators.
        
        Collectively are a corolla.
        
        Are leaf-like but contain pigments other than chlorophyll.
        
        Sepals and petals collectively are a perianth.
        
        Petals are located above the sepals on the receptacle.
        
        Absent in wind-pollinated species.
        
        Stamens, male fx
        
        Two parts: anther and its supporting filament.
        
        Diploid anther cells (microsporocytes) undergo meiosis to produce four microspores.
        
        Are collectively the androecium.
        
        Microspores
        
        form a resistant cell wall
        
        Undergo mitosis
        
        Stamens occur above the petals.
        
        Microgametophyte
        
        Pollen grains
        
        Sepals, sterile
        
        Protect the flower bud as it develops.
        
        May be colorful.
        
        Are modified leaves that surround maturing flower parts.
        
        All the sepals together are referred to as the calyx.
        
        Sepals are the outermost floral appendage.
        
        Carpels, female fx
        
        Style elevates the stigma.
        
        Ovary where megaspores are produced.
        
        Stigma catches pollen grains.
        
        Within the ovary are placentae bearing small structures called ovules
        
        Carpels, collectively, are the gynoecium.
        
        After fertilization of the egg, ovules mature into seeds.
        
        Megasporophyll
      - Incomplete flowers lack at least one appendage
      - A flower is a stem with leaf-like structures.
  - - - Whorls inserted relative to ovary
        
        Superior
        
        Carpel above
        
        Inferior
        
        Carpel below
        
        Receptacle surrounds carpel
      - Perianth & stamen insertion
        
        Epigynous
        
        Perianth & stamens from top of ovary
        
        ex apple flower
        
        Perigynous
        
        Perianth & stamens adnate to calyx
        
        ex cherry flower
        
        Hypogynous
        
        ex lilies
        
        Perianth & stamens on receptacle beneath ovary
    - - Hermaphroditic = perfect
      - Monoecious = male flowers and female flowers on the same plant
      - Lacking a whorl of sexual organs
      - Dioecious = male flowers on plant, female flowers on different plant
        
        Male = androecious
        
        Female = gynoecious
    - - Taxonomic importance
      - Various ways to ensure cross pollination
      - Inflorescence
  - - - Shape
        
        Actinomorphic
        
        Radially symmetric
        
        eg sunflower
        
        Zygomorphic
        
        Bilateral
        
        eg pea
        
        Irregular
        
        Floral symmetry
      - Bloom time
        
        Diurnal
        
        Daytime
        
        Nocturnal
        
        Nighttime
      - Smell, organic volatiles
        
        Sometimes use own preferences and sexual pheremones
        
        Some common chemicals
        
        Benzaldehyde (almond)
        
        Linalool (lavender)
        
        Limonene (citrus)
        
        Beta ocimene (green)
        
        Signal to pollinators
        
        May have scent glands
      - Rewards
        
        Pollen
        
        Oil
        
        Nectar
      - Color
        
        Color requires resource
        
        Omit when unnecessary
        
        Some are in the uv spectrum
        
        Some colors are more attractive than others
  - - - Abiotic
        
        Anemophily (wind)
        
        Most have no petals
        
        Stamens and stigmas exposed to air currents
        
        Small
        
        Large amount of pollen
        
        No bright colors, special odors, or nectar
        
        Pollen smooth, light, easily airborne
        
        Wind
        
        Stigma feathery to catch pollen from wind
        
        Hydrophily (water)
        
        Small flowers
        
        Long filaments for pollen transport on surface
        
        Copious pollen
        
        Oblong, heavier pollen for submarine transport
        
        Water
      - Biotic
        
        Phalenophily (moth)
        
        Many night pollinated species
        
        White
        
        Moth
        
        Heavy scent
        
        Tubular corollas
        
        Myophily, sapromyophily (fly)
        
        Putrid order, like rotting meat , carrion, dung, humus, sap and blood
        
        Nectar guides not present
        
        Sometimes flecked with translucent patches
        
        Produce pollen
        
        Pale and dull to dark brown or purple
        
        Flowers are funnel like or complex traps
        
        Fly
        
        Saprophily, for carrion mimics
        
        Psychophily (butterfly)
        
        Brightly colored (red, yellow, orange)
        
        Open during the day
        
        In clusters and provide landing platforms
        
        Ample nectar producers, with nectar deeply hidden
        
        Butterfly
        
        Nectar guides present
        
        May be clusters of small flowers (goldenrods, Spirea)
        
        Ornithophily (bird)
        
        Tubular and have petals that are recurved to be out of the way
        
        Have tubes, funnels, cups
        
        Bird
        
        Strong supports for perching
        
        Brightly colored: red, yellow, or orange
        
        Odorless (birds have a poor sense of smell)
        
        Open during the day
        
        Prolific nectar producers with nectar deeply hidden
        
        Modest pollen producers that are designed to dust the bird’s head/back with pollen as the bird forages for nectar
        
        Melittophily (bee)
        
        Brightly colored with petals that are usually blue or yellow or a mixture of these (bees cannot see red) but can in UV
        
        Sweetly aromatic or have a minty fragrance
        
        Full of nectar
        
        Open in daytime
        
        Bee
        
        Provide landing platforms
        
        Often bilaterally symmetrical (one side of the flower is a mirror image of the other)
        
        Flowers are often tubular with nectar at base of tube
        
        Chiropterophily (bat)
        
        Large in size (1 to 3.5 inches);
        
        Pale or white in color;
        
        Open at night;
        
        Very fragrant, a fermenting or fruit-like odor; and/or
        
        Bat
        
        Copious dilute nectar.
        
        Cantharophily (beetle)
        
        Strongly fruity
        
        Open during the day
        
        White, to dull white or green
        
        Moderate nectar producers
        
        Bowl-shaped with sexual organs exposed
        
        May be large solitary flowers (i.e. magnolias, pond lilies)
        
        Beetle
        
        May be clusters of small flowers (goldenrods, Spirea)
    - - Uses trickery
        #
      - Usually no reward
      - May smell like pollinator
      - Saprophily included
      - May look like pollinator
  - - - Zygote develops in embryo
      - Integuments develop into a seed coat
      - Primary endosperm nucleus divides forming endosperm
      - Ovary wall and related structures develop into fruit
    - - Ovary sometimes with other portions of flower or inflorescence develops into a fruit
      - Ovary wall
        
        Thickens and differentiations
        
        Pericarp
        
        Endocarp
        
        Exocarp
        
        Mesocarp
    - - Tissue besides the ovary is included in the fruit
      - Can be simple, aggregate or multiple
      - Any fruit with accessory tissue
    - - Banana
      - Seedless watermelon
      - Fruit development
        
        Without fertilization
        
        Without seed development
    - - Examples
        
        Cherry
        
        Tomato
        
        Bean
      - Major fleshy types
        
        Drupes
        
        Pomes
        
        Berries
      - 2+ united carpels
      - Major dry types
        
        Dehiscent
        
        Indehiscent
      - Single carpel
    - - Carpel retains its identify in mature state
      - Carpel retains its identify in mature state
        
        Magnolias
        
        Raspberries
        
        StrawberriesMultiple fruits
      - Apocarpous gynoecium
    - - Combined gynoecia of many flowers
      - Example
        
        Mulberry
        
        Pineapple
        
        Fig
      - Derived from an inflorescence
  - - - Water #
        
        Large airspaces
        
        Example coconut
        
        Buoyant
      - Animal
        
        Active
        
        Seed pass through gut without harm
        
        Seeds are regurgitated later
        
        Long-distance dispersal
        
        Ends up in a nice little pile of nutrient dense excrement
        
        Provide animal with nutrients
        
        Ants with elaiosome (lipid based nutrient rich)
        
        Fleshy
        
        Passive
        
        Catch on fur
        
        Catch on hoof
        
        Hooks
        
        Velcro
      - Wind
        
        Parachutes
        
        Lightweight seeds
        
        Wings
      - Self
        
        Gravity
        
        Exploding
- - - - Gymnosperms
        
        Progymnosperms (extinct)
      - Angiosperms
      - Seed ferns (extinct)
    - - Elkinsia polymorpha
        
        4-5 lobes fused basal third
        
        360mya
      - Late Devonian (W. Virginia)
      - Pseudosporogonites quadrapartitus
    - - Lobate integuments
        
        Free from nucellus/ megasporangium
      - Moresnetia zalesskyi
        
        8-10 lobes fused at chalaza and widely separated
        
        360mya
    - - Stamnostoma huttonense
        
        352 mya
      - Gnetopsiselliptica
      - Complete enclosure of megasporangium within integument
        
        Increased protection
        
        Desiccation
        
        Herbivory
    - - Protection
        
        Integuments
      - Pollen capture
        
        Pollen chamber
        
        Micropyle
      - Heterospory
      - Nucellus
  - - - Reduction # of megasporocytes/ megasporangium to 1
      - Survival of 1 megaspore
      - Retention of megaspores w/in megasporangium
      - Endosporic megagametophyte
      - Megasporangium enclosed in integuments
      - Modification of megasporangium apex for microspores or microgametophytes
      - Heterospory
      - Embryo develop within megagametophyte
    - - Microspores
        
        Microgametophyte
      - Found in some non-seed plants
      - Megaspores
        
        Megagametophyte
    - - Second integument phyllad origin
      - First integument telomes
    - - Megasporocyte
        
        Megaspore mother cell
        
        Reduced to one per megasporangium rather than hundreds
    - - 4 resulting daughter cells
      - 3 megaspores degenerate
      - Megasporocyte undergoes meiosis
      - 1 megaspore remains
    - - Large megaspore retained inside megasporangium
      - Extra layer of protection
      - Reduced megaspores with other 3 aborted
    - - Fertilization of egg occurs in wall
      - Extra layer of protection
      - Megagametophyte retained inside megaspore wall
    - - Pollen chamber
        
        Through programmed cell death
      - Micropyle
    - - Egg retained
      - After syngamy, embryo develops within
      - Multicellular megagametophyte
  - - - Gametophyte dominant stage in early land plants
      - Reduced over time
    - - Sperm development within antheridia
      - Sperm rely on water for swimming to archegonia
    - - Dispersal no longer requires water
      - Exine prevents desiccation
      - Microgametophyte
      - Some with air bladders
        
        Transport by wind
      - Haustoria pollen tubes
        
        Provide nutrients to developing sperm
        
        Can be a lengthy process from pollination to fertilization
        
        Tubes feeding on nucellus
    - - Direct delivery of sperm to the megagametophyte
      - Pollen tube
        
        Directed by synergids
        
        Feeds on nucellus (gymnosperm)
        
        Feeds on style (angiosperm)
    - - Microspore within microsporangium
      - Mitosis within microspore wall
      - Angiosperm, 3-celled
        
        Tube cell
        
        Generative cell
      - Endosporic male gametophyte = pollen grain
  - - - Nested doll
        #
        
        Integument (1)
        
        Megaspore wall
        
        Megasporangium
        
        Archegonium
        
        Eggs
      - Megasporangium is nutritious tissue = nucellus
    - - 1 microsporocyte
      - Pollen chamber
      - Ovule on megasporophyll
      - Nesting doll
        
        Integument
        
        Nucellus
        
        Megaspore wall
        
        Archegonium
        
        Egg
    - - Megasporocyte reduced to one
      - Megaspore reduced to one and retained
      - Megasporangium = nucellus
      - Megagametophyte = egg sac
      - 2 integuments
      - Furniculum
    - - megaspore
      - 2 integuments
      - 1 megasporocyte
      - Embryo sac = megagametophyte
        
        8 nucleate
        
        2 polar
        
        Becomes endosperm
        
        2 synergids
        
        Guide pollen tube
        
        3 antipodals
        
        Sometimes nutritive
        
        1 egg
        
        Eventual zygote
    - - Both single megaspore
      - 1 integument, 2 integuments
      - Both single megasporocyte
      - Unique to Angiosperm
        
        Additional protection from ovary wall
        
        Double fertilization
  - - - Enabled colonization of drier upland habitats
      - Enabling advanced reproductive traits
        
        Pollination Drops
      - Increased independence from free water reproduction
      - Embryo dormancy increase chance of offspring survival
    - - Some with fleshy outer layer (aril)
      - Several cotyledons
      - Pine example
      - Integument becomes seed coat
    - - Pollen tube ruptures inside synergid releasing sperm
      - One sperm fuses with egg
        
        Zygote
        
        2n diploid
      - Generative cell divides into 2 sperm
      - One sperm fuses with polar nuclei
        
        3n triploid
        
        Endosperm
      - Pollen tube grows down style
    - - Large amount of endosperm
      - Corn example
      - One cotyledon = scutellum
      - Integuments become seed coat
    - - Large amount of endosperm
      - Integuments become seed coat
      - 2 cotyledons
      - Bean example
- - - - Major input of water cycle
      - Moves water from soil to atmosphere
    - - Due to it’s polarity
      - Attracted to other substances
      - Potential for water to react or move
      - Lower potential when it’s surrounded by ions
    - - Water moves from less negative water potentials to areas of more negative water potentials
      - Based on the free energy of water
      - Components
        
        ψ = ψp + ψπ + ψm
        
        ψπ = osmotic potential:
        
        effect that solutes have on ψ
        
        Adding solutes decreases water’s free energy, so ψπ is always negative.
        
        Difference between the solution and pure solvent resulted after adding solutes
        
        ψm = matric potential:
        
        adhesion to structures such as cell walls, membranes, and soil particles
        
        Adhesion can only decrease water’s free energy, so ψm is always negative.
        
        Always negative
        
        Example, soil particles
        
        Significant only outside living systems in very dry soils
        
        Adhesion of water molecules to nondissolved structures
        
        ψp = pressure potential:
        
        effect that pressure has on ψ
        
        If water is under pressure, both pressure potential and water potential increase.
        
        Water at atmospheric pressure has a pressure potential of zero
        
        Xylem cells negative pressure due to tension
        
        In turgid plant cells positive value
        
        Hydrostatic pressure exerted on water in a cell
  - - - Close at times of stress
      - Close at night
      - Stomata open shortly after daybreak
    - - Water evaporates from intercellular spaces
      - Starts the domino effect of water potentials
      - Open stomata
    - - Root hairs greatly increase surface area
      - Water moves from hypotonic to hypertonic solutions
    - - Forces symplastic movement
      - Embolism is an air pocket
        
        Completely makes tracheary element non functional
      - Casparian strip of root endodermis
    - - H2O in the uppermost tracheary elements must lift the weight of the entire H2O column.
      - Tension is on these molecules, and consequently, the pressure potential is a negative number.
      - As H2O diffuses out of xylem in the leaves, cohesive forces pull H2O upward through the xylem, all the way from the roots.
    - - Cohesion due to water polarity
      - Adhesion along cell walls helps to fight gravity
  - - - Transport assimilate from areas where it’s made = sources
      - Materials moved to sinks
        
        Actively growing areas
        
        Storage areas
    - - Actively transported into sieve elements
      - Decreases water potential of STE
      - Sugars transported as sucrose
    - - Creates a water potential gradient between sieve tube elements and surrounding cells
    - - Xylem has a much higher water potential than phloem
      - Water moves from less negative water potential to more negative water potential
      - Phloem is always close to xylem
    - - By companion cells
      - Stored as starch
      - Sucrose actively transported from sieve tube
      - Used in metabolism
        
        Aerobic respiration