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U51
1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: THE VICTORIAN DRAMA
The period in which the two playwrights were active overlaps with what is known as
the late Victorian and Edwardian periods
(1890s and until 1918 according to several scholars) in the history of Britain. The British Empire was at its height.
The Industrial Revolution
(1760-1840) had transformed Britain into an urban state apart from political, social, economic & technological changes. Life in big cities like London brought both new social problems and changes in people’s mentality. More
liberal views were struggling with censorship
in the field of culture.
The 1890s can be considered as
a transitional phase between the optimism & promise of the Victorian period and the Modernist movement
, during which artists began to challenge just how genuine that optimism & promise had been in the first place. Despite the fact that both authors were born beyond Queen
Victoria’s reign they belong to different periods: Oscar Wilde within the
midlate Victorian period
and George Bernard Shaw within the
early 20th c.
, which coincided with the emergence of
modernism
.
a) HISTORICAL CONTEXT
late 19th c.
Victorian society
Sense of "respectability"
Strict social code vs. "Improper" behaviour
"Cult of domesticity"
: Separation btw Public male & Private female spheres
Rigid social hierarchy
: Poor as (morally) inferior
Influence of religion
: Judgamental attitudes
Victorian society was deeply
concerned with morality & proper behavior
, especially among the middle & upper classes. This rigid
sense of “respectability,”
demanded adherence to
strict social codes
governing behavior, speech, dress & even leisure activities, especially regarding sexuality, marriage & gender roles.
Public behavior was expected to be dignified
, and outward appearances were important.
People avoided discussing topics deemed “improper,”
such as sexuality, even as social issues like prostitution.
Women were idealized
as models of virtue & purity and were
expected to focus on domestic life
, raising children, and supporting their husbands, who were seen as breadwinners. This expectation of the “angel in the house” reinforced
a separation between the public (male) & private (female) spheres
, which severely limited women's independence & freedom.
Although the Industrial Revolution
(1760-1840) created a new middle class of entrepreneurs & professionals, which
disrupted traditional class boundaries
& reshaped social dynamics,
rigid social hierarchy & distinctions persisted
, with limited social mobility for the working class. The aristocracy & wealthy middle class were viewed as the pillars of society, while the working class was often regarded as inferior, even morally suspect.
Religious ideals strongly influenced Victorian values, aimed at “saving” the poor and “redeeming” the morally corrupt. However, these religious values often
manifested in judgmental attitudes
, especially
towards issues like poverty & “immorality,”
as
the poor were frequently viewed as responsible for their own plight
.
(1837-1901)
the British Empire
Nationalism & superiority
: the "civilizing mission" as a moral obligation
The Victorian era was
the height of the British Empire
, with colonies across Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific. This vast empire fueled
a sense of nationalism & “British superiority,”
reinforcing Victorian ideals of
“civilizing” other cultures
. The British saw themselves as spreading their values & culture through their colonies, although
this often led to exploitation, displacement & suffering
for colonized people.
early 20th c.
WWI
Impact of WWI & Modernism
WWI (1914-1918) shattered the cultural & political landscape of Europe and the world. It was the first global conflict of its scale, leading to unprecedented death & destruction. After the war, there was widespread doubt about the efficacy of Western civilization and its ideals. This led many artist & writers to
reject previous conventions and embrace a fragmented, more pessimistic view
of the human experience, setting the stage for
modernist experimentation
as a way to express a world that seemed chaotic & broken.
Social & political changes
Women's suffrage & rights
the Russian Revolution
The early 20th c. saw a major push for women’s suffrage across Europe. Also, the
feminist movement
, which had begun in the 19th c., gained momentum as
women fought for equal rights in marriage, education & employment
. The period also saw a shift in social norms, with women gradually
challenging traditional roles & gaining greater freedom
in aspects such as fashion, sexuality, and employment.
Political revolutions, such as
the Russian Revolution in 1917
, inspired radical political & social movements across Europe, particularly those
advocating for socialism, communism, and workers’ rights
.
b) LITERARY CONTEXT
This repressive climate of Victorian society inspired Wilde & Shaw to
use drama as a platform to critique & satirize the moral & social expectations of their time
. Wilde often targeted the hypocrisy of the upper classes, while Shaw was interested in exposing broader social injustices, including class disparity, gender inequality & economic exploitation.
Oscar Wilde
Aestheticism
the Comedy of Manners
Wilde became one of the leading figures and most famous proponents of
the Aesthetic Movement
, which
promoted "art for art's sake"
. Aestheticism
valued beauty over moral or social messages in art
, leading Wilde to
focus on wit, elegance & style
. This was highly controversial in Victorian society, which valued art for its supposed moral lessons. His well-known quote “All art is quite useless,” reflected this philosophy, which
rejected the utilitarian Victorian tradition
in which art or literature
should offer a moral message or social purpose
.
Wilde
revitalized the “comedy of manners” genre
, a form of satire that humorously exposes the follies of society.
Wilde's works are less overtly political than Shaw’s
, often emphasizing wit, irony & satire
to critique the social pretensions, manners & customs of the upper class
. Wilde used the comedy of manners
to expose the hypocrisy in Victorian ideals
about marriage & romantic relationships, especially the transactional, materialistic & superficial nature of these unions within the upper class (e.g.
Lady Windermere’s Fan
). Also, it often revolves around characters who lead double lives or assume false identities to escape social obligations & live freely/authentically (e.g.
The Importance of Being Earnest
).
Bernard Shaw
Social Problem plays: "Plays Unpleasant" series
Shaw adopted the social problem play format
to tackle subjects like poverty, exploitation & class inequality
. His
Plays Unpleasant series
, including
Widowers' Houses
(about landlords),
The Philanderer
(about polyamorous relationships) &
Mrs. Warren’s Profession
(about prostitution) were
meant to provoke thought, even discomfort, rather than merely entertain
, forcing audiences to confront societal problems head-on.
2. OSCAR WILDE
:
LATE VICTORIAN DRAMATIST & COMMEDY OF MANNERS
(1854-1900)
Intellectual, eccentric family
Exceptional academic talent
: Avid reader, Talent for languages, Love for the classics & Academic prizes at
Trinity College
>
Oxford University
Aesthetic leader/Literary celebrity
: unique, flamboyant Fashion & public personality as a Dandy
Unhappy marriage
(Constance) &
open Homosexual affair
(Alfred Douglas) >
Famous trial
Downfall
: Imprisoned for 2 years, Exile to France, Ill health, Poverty & Death of meningitis at 46
Today, A Queer icon
: Pilgrimage to his tomb & Pioneer of LGBTQ+
Born in Dublin to an intellectual, eccentric family
. His mother, Jane Wilde, was a celebrated poet & nationalist while his father, Sir William Wilde, was a prominent surgeon as well as a renowned writer & folklorist. This
intellectual environment
exposed Wilde to literature, art & political ideas from a young age.
Wilde was
an exceptionally bright child
who
read voraciously
, often consuming texts beyond his age level. He showed
a remarkable talent for languages
, particularly Latin and Greek. And his
love for the classics
influenced his later works and his flamboyant style. He was
a brilliant student
, winning numerous
academic prizes
. He attended Trinity College in Dublin, one of the top universities in Ireland and
received a scholarship to attend Oxford University
.
Wilde’s appearance was as distinctive as his writing. Wilde was known for his
unique sense of fashion
, which
contrasted sharply with the sober clothing norms of Victorian England
. His
flamboyance
was unconventional at the time, making him
a controversial figure
but also gaining him a following & solidifying his public persona as
a dandy
(“I can resist everything except temptation”). He embraced the
Aesthetic Movement,
which emphasized
beauty and art above all else
—“art for art’s sake.” He walked around London in velvet jackets, silk cravats, and flowers in his lapel. He was
flamboyant, theatrical, and deliberately provocative
, mocking Victorian seriousness with style. His appearance and wit made him
both beloved and ridiculed—but always noticed
.
At 30, Wilde married Constance Lloyd, the daughter of a wealthy lawyer. They had two sons, but
their marriage was not a happy one
. He became estranged from Constance after beginning an intense relationship with
Lord Alfred Douglas
, a young poet and aristocrat who became
his most famous lover
. Their romance was intense, stormy, and full of risk—because homosexuality was illegal in Britain under laws of "gross indecency". So, he
lead a openly homosexual life
, which was scandalous in Victorian society where homosexuality was not only stigmatized but also criminalized.
This infamous affair led to scandal & ultimately his downfall
. Douglas's father disapproved of the affair and Wilde sued him for defamation. Alfred's father presented evidence of Wilde’s relationships with other men, including love letters, testimonies from rent boys, and hotel records. His jokes were used as proof of moral corruption. So,
the case backfired
and Wilde was
senteced to 2 years of hard labor
for “gross indecency” due to his relationship with Lord Alfred Douglas.
The conditions were brutal
: isolation, silence, poor food, physical labor.
Wilde's health deteriorated
. He lost weight, became depressed, and suffered from a painful ear infection that would later contribute to his death. After his release, he was
financially ruined & socially ostracized
. He
spent his last years exiled in France
, struggling with ill health & poverty, dying of meningitis at the age of 46.
Wilde’s tomb in Paris has become a literary pilgrimage site
and for many years it was famously covered in lipstick kisses left by admirers. In his time, Wilde was
persecuted for his sexuality
, but today he’s embraced as
a pioneer in LGBTQ+ history and literature
. His life and work are studied not just for their literary brilliance, but for their courage in defying Victorian norms.
The Picture of Dorian Gray
(1890, novel)
Lady Windermere’s Fan
(1892)
The Importance of Being Earnest
(1895)
Salomé
(1896)
The Importance of Being Earnest
Commedy of Manners
: Satire of Victorian society
"Earnest"
: Ironic title/Double meaning
A timeless comedy
: universal ideas still relevant today
Wilde's play pokes fun at the
strict social expectations of the Victorian era
, especially in matters of
marriage, identity & class
. Wilde himself was a dandy and a critic of societal norms, and this play uses
absurdity
to highlight the often
ridiculous nature of the standards people were expected to live by
. The characters throw around serious ideas—love, morality, religion—like they’re trivial, and treat trivial things (like cucumber sandwiches) as if they’re vital. That
reversal
is where much of the comedy and critique lies. It critiques everything from
marriage to identity, religion, gender roles, and Victorian hypocrisy
.
The title is a pun on t
he name “Ernest” and the quality of being “earnest” (sincere)
. Many of the characters are obsessed with the name Ernest, believing it signifies moral rectitude & honesty, despite
the irony that almost no one in the play is actually earnest
. Wilde plays with this irony, questioning society's
emphasis on appearances over truth
.
Despite its Victorian setting,
the play's themes remain relevant today, as it addresses universal ideas
like the pursuit of love, the struggle for identity, and the humor found in society’s arbitrary conventions. The play has been
adapted into films, musicals, and even operas
. It’s
still performed constantly
because its wit is timeless and its critique of social norms still resonates. Every generation finds new meaning in it.
Commedy of manners
Salomé
Written in French
while in Paris
Banned in England
: blasphemous
Protagonist
"Salomé"
: based on a Biblical figure —reimagined as lust & desire
A dark, symbolist Tragedy
: his darkest play
Written in French while living in Paris. Though Wilde was a fluent French speaker, it was
unusual
for an English writer to write a play in a foreign language. He did it
partly to challenge himself and partly because he wanted it to be staged in Paris
. Also, he
admired French literary styles & wanted to emulate the works of French Symbolist writers
, who inspired his use of lush, evocative language and dark, sensual themes.
Salomé was banned in Britain before it could even premiere. The Lord Chamberlain, who was responsible for approving plays for the stage, prohibited it on the grounds that it
portrayed Biblical characters, which was considered blasphemous
in England at the time. This ban frustrated Wilde, as he had hoped for an English premiere, but he later arranged for its debut in Paris.
In the Bible, Salome is barely mentioned and isn’t even named. Wilde takes that brief reference and transforms her into a sensual, obsessive, almost mythic character. His Salomé is no passive girl—she’s a powerful, disturbing
embodiment of lust and desire
.
Often considered
Wilde’s darkest & most intense play
.
Unlike his comedies
that use wit & irony, Salomé is a work of tragic obsession, exploring
the dangerous side of desire
. The character of Salome is both the victim and the instigator, and Wilde explores her unrelenting fixation on John the Baptist as a force of destructive power. Salomé is poetic, intense, and fatalistic. It’s
a work of Symbolism, filled with repetition, rich imagery
(moons, blood, eyes, lips), and a dreamlike tone.
Dark tragedy
Salomé
John the baptist
The Picture of Dorian Gray
His only novel
: Reflects his personal philosphy & ideas on aestheticism
A classic
Gothic novel
Symbolism of
"Dorian's portait"
: the Duality of human nature & Dangers of aestheticism
Famous
Preface
: a manifesto on art
Title
"Gray": moral ambiguity
Foreshadowed
Oscar Wilde's own fate
The Picture of Dorian Gray is
Wilde’s only nove
l. Though he was
primarily a playwright & poet
, Wilde crafted the novel
to reflect his personal philosophies & aesthetic ideals
. The work’s dark psychological aspects & philosophical explorations showcase Wilde’s range as a writer. He poured a lot of his aesthetic and philosophical ideas into it, making it
a kind of manifesto of his views on art, beauty, and morality
.
Even though it’s often seen as a work of aestheticism or philosophical fiction, it’s also
a classic Gothic novel
. It includes a mysterious painting, supernatural elements, a double life, hidden sins, and even a locked room—classic Gothic ingredients.
Dorian’s portrait, which ages and
shows the physical effects of his immoral choices
while Dorian himself remains young, is
a powerful symbol
. It represents the
hidden consequences of one’s actions
and the externalization of inner corruption. Wilde explores the idea that if we could see our souls change as we commit wrongs, we’d be horrified into reform. But Dorian hides the painting—and thus, avoids facing the truth. On the other hand, Dorian Gray takes the idea of "art for art's shake" and twists it into something darker, showing what happens when someone lives entirely for beauty and pleasure, detached from morality. Wilde was
pushing his own philosophy to its extreme to show the dangers
it could pose:
pursuing pleasure without limits can lead to one’s downfall
The Picture of Dorian Gray
's Preface is not just an introduction—it’s
a manifesto
. It contains
a series of epigrams
(short, clever statements) and are still quoted today in debates about art and censorship.
Wilde didn't name the novel randomly. “Gray” (or “Grey”)
symbolizes ambiguity—moral grayness
. Dorian isn’t purely good or evil; he’s caught between appearance and reality, pleasure and guilt. Even his name evokes the idea of something in between, something unclear.
Years after the novel’s release, Wilde was tried and
imprisoned for “gross indecency”
(a euphemism for
homosexuality
). During his trial,
The Picture of Dorian Gray
was used as evidence against him to suggest moral perversion.
The novel that made him famous also became part of what ruined him
.
Epigrams
:
“The artist is the creator of beautiful things.”
“There is no such thing as a moral or an immoral book. Books are well written, or badly written. That is all.”
“All art is quite useless.”
“Be yourself; everyone else is already taken.”
“To love oneself is the beginning of a lifelong romance.”
Gothic novel
1890s
3. BERNARD SHAW
:
EARLY 20TH C. MODERNIST DRAMATIST & PROBLEM PLAYS
Early exposure to Music/the Arts & Late bloomer
: 1st play at 29
Left school at 15
: Avid reader & Self-educated
Socialist, founding memeber of Fabian society & Political activist
: Critic of capitalism, poverty, social injustice, workers/women's rights & education
Satire/Comedy as a weapon
: Wit, irony & exaggeration to expose Hypocrisy, absurdities & contradictions
Problem plays/"Plays Unpleasant" series
: big social questions with no easy answers
Long life
(at 94) &
Prolific playwright
(+60 plays)
Born in Dublin, Ireland into a lower-middle-class Protestant family. Shaw’s mother was a professional singer, and she often hosted musical gatherings at home. This
early exposure to music & the arts
influenced his appreciation for beauty & performance, which would later shine in his work as a playwright. After beginning his career as
a music & theatre critic
, which allowed him to build his reputation as an intellectual & a social commentator, he
wrote his first play at the age of 29
.
Shaw had a rather unconventional education. He was largely
self-educated
; he
left formal schooling at age 15
and took to
reading voraciously in public libraries
. He absorbed everything from literature, music, philosophy, economics to political theory, developing a wide-ranging knowledge that would shaped his later work as a writer & critic.
Shaw was
a committed socialist & a founding member of the Fabian Society
, which aimed to promote socialism through gradual reform rather than revolution. His political beliefs were integral to his work, and he
used his plays to advocate for social change
, including class structure, private propery, workers' rights, women’s rights & education. So, he was
an outspoken critic of capitalism, poverty & social injustice
. He was also a commited vegetarian and a strong advocate of pacifism during WWII.
Shaw's ability to blend humor with incisive social commentary made his works both entertaining and thought-provoking.
Satire
, for Shaw, wasn’t just about humor—it was
a weapon
. He used
wit, irony, and exaggeration to expose the hypocrisy, contradictions, and absurdities of society
, especially in Victorian and Edwardian England. Before Shaw, English theatre was dominated by melodrama and romantic fluff. Shaw introduced a new kind of drama—one that was intellectual, witty, and fiercely political. He
used comedy
not just to entertain, but
to argue, provoke, and educate
.
Shaw lived a
remarkably long life
, passing away at the age of 94. He
remained active as a writer & thinker into his nineties
. In fact, he
wrote over 60 plays over the course of six decades
. His productivity & curiosity were undeterred by age, making him one of the most
prolific
writers of his time.
Many of Shaw's plays are known as
“problem plays”—they present big social questions without easy answers
, such as his "Plays Unpleasant" series (1898):
Widowers' Houses, The Philanderer and Mrs. Warren's Profession
. These plays were considered shocking in their time because they refused to romanticize social issues, instead presenting them with brutal honesty. He believed the theatre should be
a platform for serious discussion, not just escapist entertainment
. His problem plays do exactly that: They entertain with humor and clever dialogue. They challenge audiences to rethink society’s “common sense”. They leave issues open-ended, encouraging self-reflection and debate.
Widowers' Houses
(1892)
The Philanderer
(1893)
Mrs. Warren’s Profession
(1893)
Candida
(1895)
Pygmalion
(1913)
Pygmalion
Inspired by the
Greek Myth of "Pygmalion"
Critique of the
rigid British class system
"Eliza":
Feminist Portagonist
, challenges Gender roles
His only great commercial
Success
& Won a
Nobel Prize
in Literature & an
Oscar
Adaptation
: Broadway musical
My Fair Lady
Shaw named the play after the Greek myth of Pygmalion,
a sculptor who falls in love with a statue he carves
, which the goddess Aphrodite
brings to life
. This myth symbolizes transformation. In the original myth, Pygmalion is a sculptor who creates the perfect woman out of marble, then falls in love with her when she comes to life. Shaw uses this as
a metaphor
: Higgins tries to mold Eliza into his “ideal” woman. But
unlike the myth, Eliza refuses to be a passive creation
—she walks away with her own agency.
Shaw uses Pygmalion
to critique the rigid British class system
. Eliza’s metamorphosis highlights how people are often judged and defined by their accents & manners rather than by their character, suggesting that
class distinctions are socially constructed rather than inherent
.
Shaw had
progressive views on gender equality
, and Pygmalion reflects this. Eliza’s
struggle for independence & self-identity
resonates with
feminist themes
. Shaw presents her as a capable, intelligent woman who eventually chooses her own path,
defying traditional gender roles
. Shaw emphasized that Eliza’s change was not just about speaking properly or behaving like a lady; it was
about self-respect & empowerment
, showing that
her real transformation is internal
.
Although Shaw was a well-respected playwright, Pygmalion was
one of the few plays that achieved substantial commercial success during his lifetime
. Its popularity in the theater, film, and musical formats helped cement Shaw's reputation and introduce his ideas to a broader audience. As well as a Nobel Prize in Literature, his writing of the screenplay for the film version won an Oscar (1938)
Eliza Doolittle
Candida
Reversed gender roles
: Strong woman vs. Weak men: "Who deserves her?"
Critique/Breaking the
stereotype of the Victorian woman
/Angel in the house ideal
Battle for Emotional supremacy
: "Who values her as a full human being?"
Title
"Candida": a statement in itself
Considered ahead of its time
due to its progressive themes on love, relationships & gender roles.
Instead of being a passive prize
in a love triangle (
an object of desire
), Candida, the central character, is the one who ultimately
makes the decision about who truly deserves her love
. Hence, Shaw
challenges traditional gender roles
by depicting Candida as the strongest, most mature character, in contrast to the two men who rival for her attention. Both her husband & the poet flawed in different ways. Candida is the stabilizing force while
the men’s insecurities & emotional neediness highlight her strength
.
Candida challenges
the stereotypical “angel in the house” ideal
that Victorian society placed upon women. She is
neither submissive nor passive
; she is practical, self-aware & capable of making her own decisions. Her character reflects Shaw’s belief that
women deserve equal respect & intellectual consideration
.
Candida is
the emotional center of the play
, but she’s not a troublemaker. Her strength is in her calm intelligence, emotional insight, and self-awareness. She isn’t a passive wife—she is the real power in her household. By the end of the play, it’s clear that
both men are somewhat dependent on her, emotionally and practically
. While it seems like Candida must choose between Reverend James Morell, her idealistic, respected husband, and Eugene Marchbanks, the sensitive, poetic young suitor, Shaw flips the script: the real tension is
about who truly understands her, who values her emotional labor, and who sees her as a full human being, not an ideal
.
By naming the play Candida, Shaw
gives full weight to the woman’s experience
. It’s not The Poet and the Priest or The Battle of the Suitors. It’s about her—not as a symbol or object, but
as a thinking, choosing subject
. That was radical for the time.
Candida
James Morell
Eugene Marchbanks (Shaw himself)
Mrs. Warren’s Profession
It confronts the issues of poverty & exploitation by exploring prostitution as a means for women to escape poverty, challenging Victorian morality.
About
Prostitution
: an scandalous subject >
Banned
by
the Lord Chamberlein's Office
"Profession"
: Ironic Title
A Mother-Daughter relationship
—with a twist
Critique of Capitalism & Victorian Hypocrisy
The play addresses the issue of
prostitution, an incredibly taboo topic in Victorian society
. Mrs. Warren’s character argues that her life choices were made out of necessity, not immorality,
challenging Victorian rigid moral standards
. Due to its controversial subject matter, the play was
censored & banned from being performed publicly in England
by the Lord Chamberlain’s Office, and it wasn’t legally staged in London until 1925, over 30 years after it was written.
The word
“profession”
is key. Shaw is forcing audiences to confront
the idea that prostitution is work
—and that it exists
not because women are immoral, but because society rewards it economically
and offers few viable alternatives.
The plot centers on Vivie Warren, a modern, educated young woman, who discovers that
her comfortable lifestyle has been funded by her mother’s work as a brothel owner
. The play explores their generational and moral conflict—Vivie values independence and integrity, while Mrs. Warren defends
her choices as necessary for survival
in a world hostile to poor women.
Shaw, a committed socialist, wrote the play as
a critique of economic inequality
. He believed that poverty & lack of opportunity often pushed women into compromising situations, not a lack of morals. The play
criticizes capitalism & the hypocrisy of a society
that judges “immoral” behavior but fails to address the economic conditions causing it.
"Plays Unpleasant" series
1890s
(1856-1950)
