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Biology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - This structure
    - - Identifying cells
      - ATP is the main energy carrier in cells, produced during cellular respiration, primarily in the mitochondria.
        
        State that Cells Use ATP from Respiration for Energy-Requiring Processes
  - - - Compare the Structure of Typical Plant and Animal Cells
      - Cell Wall: Provides structure and protection; composed of peptidoglycan in bacteria.
        Plasma Membrane: Regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell. Cell Wall: Provides structure and protection; composed of peptidoglycan in bacteria.
        Plasma Membrane: Regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
        Cytoplasm: Contains enzymes and other molecules needed for metabolism.
        Ribosomes: Smaller than those in eukaryotic cells; responsible for protein synthesis. Nucleoid: Region where the bacterial chromosome (DNA) is located, not enclosed by a membrane.
        Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules that are separate from the chromosomal DNA. Flagella (in some bacteria): Used for locomotion.
        
        Outline Key Structural Features of a Prokaryotic Cell as Found in a Typical Bacterium
        
        Viruses are composed of genetic material (either DNA or RNA) encased in a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses also have an outer envelope derived from the host cell's membrane, made of phospholipids.
        
        State that All Viruses are Non-Cellular Structures with a Nucleic Acid Core (Either DNA or RNA) and a Capsid Made of Protein
        
        Drawings should accurately represent the observed structures and include labels for key organelles and cell features.
        
        Draw Cells from Microscope Slides and Photomicrographs
        
        Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles and have simpler structures. Their DNA is located in the nucleoid, not within a nucleus, and they have smaller ribosomes.
        
        Compare the Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell with the Structures of Typical Eukaryotic Cells
        
        State that All Viruses are Non-Cellular Structures with a Nucleic Acid Core (Either DNA or RNA) and a Capsid Made of Protein
        
        State that All Viruses are Non-Cellular Structures with a Nucleic Acid Core (Either DNA or RNA) and a Capsid Made of Protein
        
        M = I / A
        
        Calculate Magnifications of Images and Actual Sizes of Specimens from Drawings, Photomicrographs, and Electron Micrographs
        
        Plantr cell and animal cells
- - - - Formation and Breakage of Glycosidic Bonds:
      - Made of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid tails (hydrophobic), and a phosphate group head (hydrophilic). These are essential for cell membranes, forming a bilayer.
        
        Phospholipids:
        
        Primary Structure: Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
        Secondary Structure: Folding into α-helices or β-pleated sheets due to hydrogen bonding. Tertiary Structure: 3D folding based on interactions between R groups.
        Quaternary Structure: Multiple polypeptide chains joining to form a functional protein (e.g., hemoglobin).
        
        Protein Structures:
        
        A globular protein with a quaternary structure of four polypeptide chains, each containing an iron-rich heme group, allowing oxygen binding and transport in the blood.
        
        Hemoglobin Structure and Function:
    - - Non-polar and hydrophobic, triglycerides consist of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule through ester bonds.
        
        Triglycerides:
        
        Amino Acid Structure: Contains an amino group (-NH₂), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable R group.
        Peptide Bond Formation: Amino acids link by condensation to form peptide bonds. Hydrolysis breaks these bonds.
        
        Amino Acids and Peptide Bonds:
        
        Globular Proteins: Soluble with roles in metabolism (e.g., enzymes, hemoglobin).
        Fibrous Proteins: Insoluble with structural roles (e.g., collagen).
        
        Globular vs. Fibrous Proteins:
        
        Benedict’s Test for Reducing Sugars:
        
        Mix Benedict’s reagent with the sample and heat. A color change (blue to red/orange) indicates reducing sugars.
        
        Iodine Test for Starch:
        
        Add iodine solution to the sample. A blue-black color indicates the presence of starch.
- - - - Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, lowering the activation energy required. They work by binding to specific substrates at their active sites, following the lock-and-key or induced-fit hypothesis.
        
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        Factors Affecting Enzyme Action:
        
        Various factors influence enzyme activity, including temperature, pH levels, substrate concentration, and the presence of inhibitors (both competitive and non-competitive). These factors alter the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions, which can be experimentally observed.
  - - - Enzymes follow two models:
        
        Lock-and-Key Model: The substrate fits perfectly into the enzyme’s active site.
        
        Induced Fit Model: The enzyme changes shape slightly to fit the substrate.
      - pH: Each enzyme works best at a specific pH. Extreme pH levels can denature enzymes.
        Substrate Concentration: Higher concentrations increase activity until saturation is reached.