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EXAM 2, types_of_roots_taproot - Coggle Diagram

- - - - derived novel trait
    - - apomorphy shared by two or more taxa
      - hypothesized to have evolved in their most recent common ancestor
      - synonymous with homology
    - - character newer than
    - - character older than
    - - convergent evolution leads to species independently sharing a trait that is different from the trait inferred to have been present in their common ancestor
      - rait has gained or lost independently in separate lineages during evolution
    - - independent evolution of a similar trait in two or more taxa.
  - - - Ancestral, found in charophytes
        
        Growth by mitosis
    - - Charophytes mainly filamentous
        
        Bryophytes protonema
        
        Apical bud
        
        Filamentous
  - - - Cytokinesis in a single plane
      - Only divide at tip
    - - Cytokinesis in oblique planes
  - - - Laid foundation for multiple sporangia (polysporangiate)
        
        Specialized organ systems
        
        Large complex plants
    - - Unique mutant
    - - Cooksonia eg
    - - Displace sporangium
        
        On leaf
        
        Side axial
      - Some tips sterile
      - Necessary prior to indeterminancy
      - Polysporantiate
  - - - Lycophytes various branching structures
        
        Equal branching
        
        Isotomous
        
        Unequal branching
        
        anisotomous
  - - - Grow continuously
        
        Produce new tissue
        
        Produce new organs
        
        From shoot apex
  - - - Vascular plant sporophyte
      - Fern (monilophyte) gametophyte
      - Bryophyte gametophyte
    - - Lycophytes (multicellular)
      - Monilophytes (single cell)
      - Spermatophytes (multicellular)
  - - - Continuously divides
        
        Matures in to transition tissues
        
        Procambium
        
        Ground meristem
        
        Protoderm
- - - - Synapomorphy
        
        All have vascular tissue
        
        Cell type varies
        
        Vascular architecture diverse
    - - Tracheids
        
        Cooksonia
        
        Annular thickenings
        
        Thought to be true tracheids
        
        Early tracheids
        
        Water transport only (no support)
        
        lignified
        
        long and wide
        
        Ferns
        
        1 more item...
        
        Lycophytes
        
        1 more item...
        
        Pit membranes
        
        True tracheids
        
        Lignified with ornamented walls
        
        Banded or pitted
        
        Evolved likely once
        
        Tracheophytes
        
        Function in both
        
        Support
        
        Water transport
        
        Tapered at ends
        
        1 more item...
        
        Pine tracheids
        
        Function in water movement & support
        
        Torus-margo pit membrane
        
        Move to prevent cavitation
    - - Early vascular group
        
        Created towering forests
  - - - Poikilohydric
        
        water content changes with the moisture in the surrounding environment
        
        Equilibrate water potential through environmental source
        
        Water-storage extend
      - Stayed small to reduce demand for water
      - Live in perennially wet substrates
      - More derived homoiohydric
    - - Bryophytes
        
        Water conducting cell
        
        No plasmodesmata (imperforate)
        
        Aid in refilling from cavitation
        
        Apomorphic trait (similar function but different origin) to true vascular tissue
        
        No lignin
    - - Die at maturity
        
        Thickened lignin walls
        
        Waterproofing
        
        Structural support
    - - Partially thickened
        
        Rhynia
        
        Vascular tissue not lignified
      - Lignified tracheids
        
        Horneophyton
        
        Annular cell wall
        
        Helical cell wall
      - During Devonian
        
        Increase in xylem content
        
        Increase in tracheid size
        
        Increase in tracheid reinforcement
    - - Angiosperms
        
        Homogenous pit membrane
      - Large diameter
      - Dead and maturity
      - Open, digested end walls
      - Vessel element differentiation
        
        Apical meristem
        
        Vacuolization
        
        Elongation
        
        Secondary cell wall
        
        Helical
        
        Reticulate
        
        annular
        
        Porous
        
        Dead at maturity
    - - Pit membranes are absent in perforations of mature vessel elements
      - Conductive area greater in end wall of vessel elements compared to lateral walls; tracheids are similar
      - Perforation plate morphology different than lateral-wall pitting in vessel elements; tracheid endwall similar to lateral
      - Vessel elements have a greater diameter than tracheids
      - Vessel elements are shorter than tracheids
  - - - Maximum lengths
      - maximum diameters
      - Vessel elements may be short but the vessel can be much longer
        
        yields greater conductivity in vessel elements
        
        Lowers the cost
        
        Having vessels permits more fiber
        
        Downside is greater cavitation risk
  - - - Widespread in bryophytes
        
        Specialized plasmodesmata in end walls
        
        Alignment along longitudinal arrays of endoplasmic microtubules
        
        Mitochondria
        
        ER vesicles
        
        Plastids
        
        Breakdown of tonoplast
        
        Mix vacuolar & cytoplasmic contents
        
        Rarely some species have nuclear breakdown
        
        Features common to sieve cells
    - - Transport of
        
        Hormones
        
        Electric signals
        
        Photosynthate
        
        Strasburger cells
        
        Gymnosperms only these
        
        Earlier lineages with various types including transitional = sieve elements
        
        Uniform sieve areas
        
        Lacks sieve plate
        
        Mostly on ends
      - Sieve tube elements features
        
        Sieve plate
        
        Area with many sieve pores
        
        Usually on end wall
        
        Many sieve tube elements together = sieve tube
        
        Primary cell wall
        
        Living protoplasts at maturity
        
        Callose & callose plugs
        
        Sieve tube contents
        
        P-proteins
        
        May help in plug pores in response to leakage
        
        Forisomes
        
        Legumes
        Plug pores
        
        Sieve element plastids
        
        Mitochondria
        
        very few
        
        Endoplasmic reticulum
        
        Lost ribosomes
        Highly folded
    - - Sieve tube element
        
        Sieve plate
        
        Sieve pore
        
        Lateral sieve area
        
        P protein
        
        Plastid
        
        Smooth ER
        
        Mitochondria
      - Companion cell
        
        Branched plasmodesmata
        
        Vacuole
        
        Nucleus
        
        mitochondria
      - Transport of
        
        Hormones
        
        Electric signals
        
        Photosynthate
    - - Sieve tube & companion cell from same mother cell
        
        Connected by a large quantity of plasmodesmata
        
        One pore in sieve tube area branched into many on companion cell side
    - - Cell wall thickened
        
        Cytoplasmic clearing
        
        No ribosomes
        
        Callose deposited around terminal plasmodesmata
        
        Nuclear break down
        
        Formation of sieve plate & pores
  - - - Root and shoot have different arrangements
        
        Key features to Monocots and Eudicots
        
        Monocot
        
        Root with pith
        Stem without pith
        
        Eudicot
        
        Root without pith
        Stem with pith
    - - Complexity increased
        
        Stem diameter increased
        
        Plant height increased
        
        Led to compartmentalization
    - - Siphonostele (~407Ma)
        
        Ring of phloem, xylem, surrounding pith
      - Eustele (~390Ma)
        
        Strands of phloem & xylem separated by parenchyma
        
        progymnosperms
        
        Most complex
      - Protostele (~420Ma)
        
        Earliest
        
        Phloem surrounds xylem or interspersed
        
        Solid vascular strand
    - - Based on xylem maturation
        
        Protoxylem
        
        Usually smaller in diameter
        
        1st xylem to mature
        
        Metaxylem
        
        Develops later
        
        Usually larger diameter cells
      - Exarch
        
        Eg protosteles
        
        Protoxylem outside metaxylem
      - Endarch
        
        Protoxylem in middle
        
        eg eusteles, atactosteles
      - Mesarch
        
        Protoxylem surrounded by metaxylem
        
        eg siphonosteles
    - - Protostele
        
        Most ancestral type of stem vasculature
      - Exarch
    - - Siphonostele
        
        Xylem surrounded by phloem
      - Endarch
    - - Atactostele
        
        Numerous vascular bundles scattered throughout stem
      - No pith
        
        Vascular bundles often surrounded by sclerenchyma
        
        Bundle sheath
    - - Eustele
        
        Phloem outside xylem
        
        Bundles separated by parenchyma
        
        Endarch
        
        Metaxylem outside protoxylem
        
        Vascular bundle supported by sclerenchyma
  - - - Amount of water loss per carbon gained increased after Silurian
      - Carboniferous period greatly drained atmospheric CO2
      - Water demand is relatively high
        
        Water transport system energetically efficient (don’t starve)
        
        Transport energy minimal
        
        Minimal maintenance = cell death
        
        Water filtration close to soil access
    - - Increased competition for light selected for
        
        More developed tree canopies
        
        taller plants
      - Higher rates of transpiration
        
        More xylem, wider xylem & longer conduits
        
        Likely evolved 5 times
    - - Monocotyledonae
        
        Arborescent
        
        No secondary growth
    - - Lepidondrids
        
        Carboniferous
        
        ~320mya
        
        Vascular cambium only divided internally
      - Archaeopteris
        
        Reproduced via spores
        
        Devonian/Carboniferous
      - Extant lineages
        
        Lycophytes
        
        Euphyllophyte
    - - Complex plant development
      - Growth in girth
      - Produce secondary
        
        phloem (inner bark)
        
        xylem (wood)
        
        Ground tissue (rays)
      - Continuous circular ring growth
    - - Fusiform initials
        
        Xylem and phloem
        
        Fascicular cambium
        
        Stem cells
      - Ray initials
        
        Ray cells
        
        Interfascicular cambium
        
        Stem cells
      - Periclinal division
        
        More xylem & phloem
      - Anticlinal division
        
        Wider circle of vascular cambium
    - - Wood block
        
        Longitudinal
        
        Transverse
        
        Unique for each face
        
        Radial
      - Initials
        
        Fusiform - longitudinal
        
        Ray - radial
    - - Xylem secondary cell walls robust
        
        Phloem is crushed
        
        Ring width determined by season and environment
        
        Alternation of
        
        Late wood
        
        Early wood
        
        Early vs Late
        
        Based on season or environment
        
        Larger elements to smaller elements
        
        Spring to fall
    - - Sapwood
        
        Functions in water transport
      - Heartwood
        
        Can no longer transport water
        
        Functions in storage
    - - Softwood
        
        Tracheids only
        
        Gymnosperms
        
        Little room for fibers
      - Hardwood
        
        Angiosperms
        
        Vessel elements’ efficiency permit space for fibers
    - - Ground tissue
        
        Rays connect
        
        Cortex
        
        Pith
      - Vascular tissue
        
        Phloem
        
        Inner bar
        
        Secondary
        
        Primary squished
        
        Lots of fibers
        
        Xylem
        
        Wood
        Primary & secondary
      - Periderm
        
        Phellogen
        
        Phellem
        
        Phelloderm
        
        Outer bark
    - - Periderm
        
        Phellem
        
        Cork
        
        Phellogen
        
        Cork cambium
        
        Phelloderm
      - Outer bark
      - Inner bark
        
        Phloem & cortex
- - - - haplontic (Greek, haploos + einai = single being)
    - - current land plants
        
        haplodiplontic (Greek, haploos + diploos + einai = single double being)
    - - interpolation theory
    - - Heteromorphic generations
        
        Sporophyte
        
        Short-lived
        
        Simple
        
        Gametophyte
        
        Relatively complex
        
        Persistent
  - - - Marchantia liverwort
        
        dominant leafy gametophyte
        
        temporary diploid sporophyte
    - - dominant life stage
        
        Antheridiophore
        
        male
        
        antheridia
        
        contains sperm
        
        Antheridial head
        
        Archegoniophore
        
        female
        
        archegonia
        
        contain eggs
        
        Archegonial head
    - - small, temporary structure
      - parasitic on gametophyte
      - meiosis occurs within sporangium
        
        spores n
        
        sporocytes 2n
    - - Mnium moss
      - Dominant leafy gametophyte
      - Temporary diploid sporophyte
  - - - Selaginella
        
        Heterosporous
        
        Retained within spore walls
        
        Sperm must still swim to egg
    - - Both male and female develop within spore wall
        
        Small
    - - Heterosporous
        
        Reduction in megasporocytes to 1 per megasporangium
        
        Micro = male
        
        Mega = female
    - - Polypod fern
        
        Independent gametophyte
        
        Independent sporophyte
    - - Microgametophytes
        
        Male
        
        Antheridium
        
        Sperm
      - Megagametophytes
        
        Female
        
        Archegonium
        
        Egg
    - - Sori
        
        Sporangia
        
        Indusia
      - Large persistent diploid
  - - - Pine
        
        Microgametophyte no longer restricted to water
        
        Megagametophyte protected by integuments
    - - Large dominant diploid stage
        
        The flowering plants are very diverse
        
        Indeterminate growth
      - Gametophyte reduced to microscopic structures
    - - Microgametophyte
        
        pollen
      - Megagametophyte
        
        Becomes nutritive tissue
        
        Protected by integuments
        
        Within an ovule
    - - Lily
        
        Gametophytes microscopic
        
        Sporophyte dominant
    - - Multicellular haploid stage
        
        Pollen grain
        
        Mature germinating
        
        Immature
    - - Multicellular haploid individual
        
        Egg one of the cells (nuclei)
- - - - One of the earliest features of land plants
    - - Small pore bounded by specialized epidermal cells, guard cells
        
        Permit rapid gas exchange in higher plants
        
        Oxygen out
        
        CO2 in
      - Control of water loss
    - - Early Devonian sporangia ~400 mya stomata scattered across sporangia
        
        Extinct lineages
        
        Rhyniophytes, Cooksonia
      - Similarities link to similar functions in extant angiosperms
        
        Some evidence of air chambers
        
        Bean-like shape
        
        Inner wall thickening
    - - Likely the origin of stomata
        
        Aid in desiccation of sporophyte
        
        Stomata near sporophyte sporangia
        
        Aid in spore dispersal
        
        May have permitted some CO2 to enter
        
        No intercellular space
    - - Support early role different from today
        
        Location on non-photosynthetic sporophyte tissue in early lineages
        
        Extant early lineages have stomata that only open
    - - Pseudostomata continuous with epidermis or hypodermis, no space
        
        Space filled with fluid with space
        
        Stomatal canal, small air space
        
        Aid in diffusion of minerals and nutrients from gametophyte to sporophyte
        
        cell death
    - - Monocot (grasses)
        
        Dumbbell shape
        
        Same direction as epidermal cells
      - Eudicot
        
        Kidney-shaped
        
        Random orientation
  - - - Active metabolic processes
        
        Moves ions, water follows by osmosis
        
        Hypotonic to hypertonic
        
        Increase turgor pressure
      - Cytoskeleton microfibrils radially oriented
    - - Provides ATP for potassium pump
        
        Protons are pumped out
        
        Potassium moved in
        
        Ancestral condition filled with chloroplasts
        
        Independent of blue light
        
        Closure at night or under water stress
    - - Amount of water loss to carbon gain
        
        Close pore during water stress
        
        Reduce transpiration
        
        Maintain hydration
        
        Reduce probability of cavitation
        
        ABA responsive in seed plants
        
        Angiosperms additionally respond to VPD
- - - - Uni-multicellular projections
      - Anchorage
      - Some with mineral uptake
      - Genes
        
        play a role in root hair developmen
        
        predate land plants
    - - Lepidodendrales extinct
      - Lateral stigmarian rootlets
        
        Highly branched
        
        Root hairs, mixed reports
      - Similar to roots
        
        No stomata
        
        No chlorophyll
        
        Develop gravitropically
      - Dichotomous rooting system
      - No root cap
      - Extant species lycophyte
        
        No quiescent center
        
        With root hairs
        
        Bifurcating
    - - Rhynie chert, Zosterophyllophyta, Early Devonian
      - Upright stem, prostrate stems, downward (rootlike) stems
    - - Early without root hairs
        
        Intact epidermis covered root tip
        
        Anticlinal divisions only
        
        Devonian lycophyte Asteroxylon mackiei
        
        Independent evolution of
        
        Root cap
        
        Endodermis
    - - Diversity of arrangement used to infer phylogeny
        
        Number of initial cells differs
        
        Similar genes across plant taxa
        
        Similar genes in shoot to root
  - - - Primary root
        
        Main root
        
        Mainly dominant in eudicots
        
        Derived from radicle
        
        Mainly ephemeral in monocots
      - Lateral roots
        
        Adventitious roots
        
        Dominant in monocots
        
        Derived from stems & leaves
        
        Seminal roots
        
        Derived from mesocotyl
    - - Highly differentiated multicellular axis
        
        Found only in sporophytes of vascular plants
        
        Functions
        
        Absorbs dissolved minerals
        
        Absorbs water
        
        Anchors plant body to substrate
        
        Common features
        
        Pericycle
        
        Endodermis
        
        Apical meristem & root cap
        
        Root hairs
        
        Cortex
    - - Quiescent center
        
        Backup plan
        
        Rarely divides
        
        Maintains initial cells
        
        Behind root cap
    - - Evolved independently
        
        Euphyllophyte
        
        Lycophyte
      - Protect underlying tissues
      - Cells that slough off
      - Secrete mucilage
    - - Pluripotent
        
        Just inside the endodermis
        
        Initiation of lateral root development
    - - Single celled
        
        Major absorption of water and minerals
        
        Via osmosis
        
        Delicate
        
        Short-lived
    - - Large storage area
        
        Outermost layers may show
        
        Exodermis
        
        Suberized lamella
        
        Casparian strip
        
        Hypodermis
        
        Bound by endodermis and epidermis
    - - Casparian strip
        
        Prevents apoplastic movement of water
        
        Forces water to move through cell membranes to be filtered
  - - - Selaginella sp example
      - No root hairs
      - No root cap
    - - Diversity
      - Pith in center
      - Endodermis
      - Surrounded by cortex
      - Monocot details
        
        Endodermis
        
        Casparian strip
        
        Pericycle
        
        Cortex
        
        Xylem
        
        Epidermis
        
        Phloem
        
        Pith
    - - Cortex
      - Endodermis
        
        Casparian strip
      - Epidermis
      - Pericycle
      - Phloem
      - Xylem
- - - - Low capacities for water uptake prior to root evolution
      - Lacking efficient vascular transport in leaves
        
        Vascular embolism
        
        Burn up leaf
      - Low stomatal densities
        
        Increase permit greater evaporative cooling
      - High atmospheric global temperatures
    - - Earliest evidence of true leaves
        
        Lycophytes
        
        microphylls/ lycophylls
        
        Euphyllophytes
        
        Independent evolution
    - - Indeterminate growth proceeded leaf development
      - Optimize light interception for photosynthesis
      - Leaves initiated in regular patterns around stem
    - - Leaves had at least 5 independent origins
        
        Lycophyte sporophyte
        
        Monilophyte sporophyte
        
        Moss gametophyte
        
        Spermatophyte sporophyte
        
        Liverwort gametophyte
    - - Mitosis of a single cell
        
        Moss
        
        Moss midvein cell layer
        
        Liverwort
      - Microphyll
        
        Lycophyte
        
        Mitosis of 2 epidermal cells
      - Frond
        
        Mitosis of single apical cell
        
        Monilophyte
        
        Shoot like development
      - Euphylls
        
        Seed plants
        
        Pool of recruited cells
        
        From flanks of multicellular shoot apical meristem
    - - Lycophyte leaves
      - Progressive elaboration of epidermal outgrowths
      - Vascular strands entered later
      - Fossils consistent
        
        Asteroxylon
      - Living evidence
        
        2 epidermal cells grow to form leaf pair
        
        Selaginella draussiana
    - - Evolution of euphylls
        
        Overtopping
        
        Unequal branching (primary & side)
        
        Planation
        
        Flattening of axes into 2 dimensional
        
        Webbing
        
        Branches becomes veins
        
        Webbing becomes mesophyll
        
        Develop thin tissue between axes of branches
        
        By Devonian euphylls widespread
  - - - Ground tissue
      - Contains chloroplasts
      - Specialized parenchyma
      - function is photosynthesis
      - :
    - - Ground tissue
      - Specialized parenchyma
      - Contains air spaces from cells being digested
      - Main function permit gas-exchange
      - Large air pockets
    - - Ground tissue
      - Main function in flexible support
      - Thickened primary cell walls
      - Found in bundle sheath of veins in some species
    - - Xylem
        
        Water transport
        
        Tracheids
      - Phloem
        
        Companion cells/ albuminous cells
        
        Sieve tube element/ sieve cells
        
        Photosynthate transport
      - In veins
    - - Guard cells
      - Often cutenized
      - Epidermal cells
      - protecting the internal tissues
      - Dermal tissue
  - - - Single vascular trace along center of blade
      - Vascular strand connects directly to stem
      - Microphyll
      - Mesophyll
      - Epidermis
      - Stomata
    - - Epidermis
        
        Covered by cuticle
        
        Adaxial (outer) & abaxial (towards stem)
        
        bulliform cells
        
        helpful for the rolling and unrolling
        
        Contains stomata
      - Veins
        
        Surrounded by bundle sheaths
      - Mesophyll
    - - Mesophyll
        
        Palisade
        (Photosynthesis)
        
        Spongy
        (Gas exchange)
      - Veins
        
        Xylem on top phloem on bottom
        
        Bundle sheath cells
      - Epidermis
        
        Dermal tissue
        
        Guard cells
        
        Epidermal cells
        
        Cuticle
        
        Upper & lower
- - - - Present atmospheric level oxygen
        
        20.9%
        
        535x more O2 than CO2
      - During appearance of land plants
        
        4% O2
        
        8-15x higher in CO2
        
        weak ozone
        
        Kept tissues thin as internal environment quickly anoxic
    - - 470Ma
      - Major evolutionary changes in morphology & reproduction
      - Multicellular sporophyte
      - Retain the zygote & embryo within the female gametophyte
      - Apical cells with 3 cutting faces
    - - Charophycean green algae
      - Streptophyta
        
        Embryophyta and charophytes
      - Sometimes grow as flat disc very similar to present day liverworts
    - - Earliest evidence from spores and tissue fragments
        
        Sporopollenin wall
        
        Trilete mark
        
        Cryptospores
        
        Likely liverwort
    - - 390 Ma
        
        Middle Devonian
        
        Dichotomously branched
    - - Cooksonia sporophytes
      - Mid-Late Silurian
      - 425 Ma
      - Gametophytes complex
        
        Conducting elements
        
        Similar to extant liverworts
        
        Stomata
    - - Specialized conducting cells
      - Evidence from spores ~443 Ma
      - Tracheid fossils ~415 Ma
      - Diversity exploded in Devonian (415-360Ma)
  - - - Alternation of generations
      - Gametophyte dominant in early land plants
      - Sporophyte evolves dominance
    - - Water conducting cells
      - Food conducting cells
    - - All land plant sporophytes but liverworts
      - Ordovician, many seen by Silurian
      - Often aerial surfaces covered with cuticle
    - - Downward growing rhizomes
      - Positive gravitropism
      - Negative phototropism
      - Evolved a root cap
      - Evolved a new way to branch
        
        Early roots branched at tip
      - Some lineages may have evolved from leaves
    - - Gametophyte
        
        Completely dependent on sporophyte
        
        Egg protected by special layers of tissue
      - Seed ferns (all extinct)
      - Gymnosperm
        
        Naked seed
      - Angiosperm
        
        Hidden seed
    - - Stem specialization
      - Attraction
      - Dispersal
      - Coevolution