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Exam 2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Derived novel trait
    - - Apomorphy shared by two or more taxa
      - Hypothesized to have evolved In their
        most recent common ancestor
      - Synonymous with homology
    - - Trait has gained or lost Independently In
        separate lineages during evolution
      - Convergent evolution leads to species Independently
        sharing a trait that Is different from the trait Inferred
        to have been present In their common ancestor
    - - Independent evolution of a similar trait In two or more taxa
  - - - Charophytes mainly filementous
      - Bryophytes protonema
        
        Filamentous and apical bud
  - - - Prophase
      - Metaphase
      - Anaphase
      - Telophase
  - - - Only divide at tip
      - Cytokinesis In a single plane
    - - Cytokinesis In oblique planes
  - - - Large complex plants
      - Specialized organ systems
  - - - Side axial
      - On leaf
  - - - Produce new organs
      - Produce new tissue
      - From shoot apex
  - - - Bryophyte gametophyte
      - Ferm (monilophyte) gametophyte
      - Vascular plant sporophyte
    - - Lycophytes (multicellular)
      - Monilophytes (single cell)
      - Spermatophytes (multicellular)
  - - - Ground meristem
      - Procambium
      - Protoderm
- - - - Synapomorphy
      - All have vascular tissue
      - Cell types varies
      - Vascular architecture diverse
    - - Tracheids
        
        Annular thickenings
        
        Cooksonia
        
        Thought to be true tracheids
    - - Early vascular group
      - Created towering forests during Carboniferous
  - - - Poikilohydric
        
        Water content changes with the moisture
        In the surrounding environment
        
        Equilibrate water potential through environmental source
        
        Water storage extended
      - Stayed small to reduce demand for water
      - Live In perennially wet substrates (stream sides)
      - More derived homoiohydric
    - - Bryophytes
      - Water conducting cell
        
        No plasmodesmata (imperforate)
        
        Aid In refilling from cavitation
      - Apomorphic trait (similar function but
        different origin) to true vascular tissue
      - No lignin
    - - Die at maturity
      - Thickened lignin walls
        
        Waterproofing
        
        Structural support
    - - Partially thickened
        
        Rhynia
        
        Vascular tissue not lignified
      - Lignified tracheids
        
        Horneophyton
        
        Annular cell wall
        
        Helical cell wall
      - During Devonian
        
        Increase In xylem content
        
        Increase In tracheid size
        
        Increase In tracheid reinforcement
    - - Water transport only (no support)
      - Lignified
      - Relatively long and wide
      - Ferns
        
        Tracheids + vessel elements In rhizomes of some species
      - Lycophytes
      - Pit membranes
    - - Lignified with ornamented walls
        
        Banded or pitted
      - Evolved likely once
        
        Tracheophytes
      - Function In both water transport and support
      - Tapered at ends
      - Rather narrow
    - - Function In water movement and support
      - Torus-margo pit membrane
        
        Move to prevent cavitation
    - - Angiosperms
        
        Homogenous pit membrane
      - Large diameter
      - Dead and maturity
      - Open, digested end walls
    - - Pit membranes are absent In perforations
        of mature vessel elements
      - Conductive area greater In end wall of vessel elements
        compared to lateral walls; tracheids are similar
      - Perforation plate morphology different than lateral-wall pitting
        In vessel elements; tracheid endwall similar to lateral
      - Vessel elements have a greater diameter than tracheids
      - Vessel elements are shorter than tracheids
    - - Vessels can have greater
        
        Maximum diameters and maximum lengths
      - Vessel elements may be short but the vessel can be much longer
      - Yields greater conductivity In vessel elements
      - Lowers the cost (construction & transpiration)
      - Having vessels permits more fiber (hardwood vs softwood)
      - Downside Is greater cavitation risk
    - - Apical meristem
      - Vacuolization
      - Elongation
      - Secondary cell wall
        
        Annular
        
        Helical
        
        Reticulate
        
        Porous
      - Dead at maturity
  - - - Widespread In bryophytes
      - Specialized plasmodesmata In end walls
      - Alignment along longitudinal arrays of endoplasmic microtubules
        
        Plastids
        
        Mitochondria
        
        ER vesicles
      - Breakdown of tonoplast
        
        Mix vacuolar and cytoplasmic contents
      - Rarely some species have nuclear breakdown
      - Features common to sieve cells
    - - Transport of
        
        Photosynthate
        
        Hormones
        
        Electric signals
      - ac AKA Strasburger cells
      - Gymnosperms only these
      - Earlier lineages with various types Including
        transitional = sieve elements
      - Sieve area pores narrow
      - Uniform sieve areas
        
        Mostly on ends
        
        Lacks sieve plate
    - - Sieve plate
        
        Area with many sieve pores
        
        Usually on end wall
      - Many sieve tube elements together = sieve tube
      - Primary cell wall
      - Living protoplasts at maturity
        
        Few organelles (ER)
      - Callose and callose plugs
    - - Companion cell
        
        Branched plasmodesmata
        
        Vacuole
        
        Nucleus
        
        Mitochondria
    - - P-proteins
        
        May help In plug pores In response to leakage
      - Forisomes
        
        Legumes and plug pores
      - Sieve element plastids
      - Very few mitochondria
      - Endoplasmic reticulum
        
        Lost ribosomes and highly folded
    - - Sieve tube and companion cell from same mother cell
      - Connected by a large quantity of plasmodesmata
      - One pore In sieve tube area branched Into
        many of companion cell side
    - - Cell wall thickened
      - Cytoplasmic clearing
        
        No ribosomes
      - Callose deposited around terminal
      - Nuclear break down
      - Formation of sieve plate and pores
  - - - Root and shoot have different arrangements
      - Key features to monocots and eudicots
      - Monocot
        
        Root with pith
        
        Stem without pith
      - Eudicot
        
        Root without pith
        
        Stem with pith
    - - Complexity Increased
      - Stem diameter Increased
      - Plant height Increased
      - Led to compartmentalization
      - Selected for a woody habit
    - - Protostele (~420 Ma) - earlies
        
        Solid vascular strand
        
        Phloem surrounds xylem or Interspersed
      - Siphonostele (~407 Ma) #
        
        Ring of phloem, xylem, surrounding pith
      - Eustele (~390 Ma) #
        
        Most complex
        
        Strands of phloem and xylem separated by parenchyma
        
        Progymnosperms
    - - Based on xylem maturation
        
        Protoxylem
        
        1st xylem to mature
        
        Usually smaller In diameter
        
        Metaxylem
        
        Develops later
        
        Usually larger diameter cells
      - Exarch #
        
        Protoxylem outside metaxylem
        
        Eg protosteles
      - Endarch #
        
        Protoxylem In middle
        
        Eg eusteles, atactosteles
      - Mesarch
        
        Protoxylem surrounded by metaxylem
        
        Eg siphonosteles
    - - Protostele
        
        Most ancestral type of stem vasculature
      - Exarch
    - - Siphonostele
        
        Xylem surrounded by phloem
      - Endarch
    - - Atactostele
        
        Numerous vascular bundles scattered throughout stem
      - No pith
      - Vascular bundles often surrounded by sclerenchyma
        
        Bundle sheath
    - - Eustele
        
        Phloem outside xylem
        
        Bundles separated by parenchyma
      - Endarch
        
        Metaxylem outside protoxylem
      - Vascular bundle supported by sclerenchyma, bundle cap
  - - - Amount of water loss per carbon
        gained Increased after Silurian
      - Carboniferous period greatly drained atmospheric CO2
      - Water demand Is relatively high
        
        Water transport system energetically efficient (don't starve)
        
        Minimal maintenance = cell death
        
        Transport energy minimal
        
        Water filtration close to soil access
    - - Increased competition for light selected for
        
        Taller plants
        
        More developed tree canopies
      - Higher rates of transpiration
        
        More xylem, wider xylem and longer conduits
      - Likely evolved 5 times
    - - Monocotyledonae
      - Arborescent
        
        No secondary growth
    - - Lepidondrids
        
        Carboniferous
        
        ~320 mya
        
        Vascular cambium only divided Internally
      - Archaeopteris
        
        Devonian/Carboniferous
        
        Reproduced via spores
      - Extant lineages
        
        Lycophytes
        
        Eupyllophyte
    - - Complex plant development
      - Growth In girth
      - Produce secondary
        
        Xylem (wood)
        
        Phloem (inner bark)
        
        Ground tissue (rays)
      - Continuous circular ring growth
    - - Fusiform Initials
        
        Stem cells
        
        Xylem and phloem
        
        Fascicular cambium
      - Ray Initials
        
        Stem cells
        
        Ray cells
        
        Interfascicular cambium
      - Periclinal division #
        
        More xylem and phloem
      - Anticlinal division #
        
        Wide circle of vascular cambium
      - Fusiform Initials
        
        Periclinal division
        
        Anticlinal divisions
      - Secondary tissues
        
        Secondary xylem
        
        Secondary phloem
        
        Parenchyma rays
    - - Wood block
        
        Unique for each face
        
        Longitudinal
        
        Transverse
        
        Radial
      - Initals
        
        Fusiform - longitudinal
        
        Ray - radial
    - - Xylem secondary cell walls robust
      - Phloem Is crushed
      - Ring width determined by season and environment
      - Alternation of early wood and late wood
    - - Based on season or environment
      - Spring to fall
      - Larger elements to smaller elements
    - - Sapwood
        
        Functions In water transport
      - Heartwood
        
        Functions In storage
        
        Can no longer transport water
    - - Softwood
        
        Tracheids only
        
        Little room for fibers
        
        Gymnosperms
      - Hardwood
        
        Vessel elements' efficiency permit space for fibers
        
        Angiosperms
    - - Ground tissue
        
        Rays connect pith to cortex
      - Vascular tissue
        
        Xylem - wood, primary & secondary
        
        Phloem - Inner bar, secondary, primary squished, lots of fibers
      - Periderm
        
        Outer bark
        
        Phellem, phellogen, phelloderm
    - - Periderm
        
        Phellem (cork)
        
        Phellogen (cork cambium)
        
        Phelloderm
      - Outer bark
      - Inner bark (phloem and cortex)
- - - - No multicellular diploid Individuals
      - Haplontic (Greek, haploos + einai = single being)
    - - Current land plants
      - Haplodiplontic (Greek, haploos + diploos +
        einai = single souble being_
    - - Zygote divides mitotically Instead of meiotically
    - - Heteromorphic generations
      - Sporophyte
        
        Short-lived and simple
      - Gametophyte
        
        Relatively complex and persistent
  - - - Marchantia liverwort example
      - Dominant leafy gametophyte
      - Temporary diploid sporophyte
    - - Small, temporary structure
      - Parasitic on gametophyte
      - Meiosis occurs within sporangium
        
        Sporocytes (2n)
        
        Spores (1n)
    - - Moss examples
      - Dominant leafy gametophyte
      - Temporary diploid sporophyte
  - - - Selaginella example
      - Heterosporous
      - Retained within spore walls
      - Sperm must still swim egg
    - - Both male and female develop within spore wall
      - Microgametophytes
        
        Male, anetheridium, sperm
      - Megagametophytes
        
        Female, archegonium, egg
    - - Heterosporous
      - Reduction In megasporocytes to 1 per megasporangium
      - Micro = male
      - Mega = female
      - Sori
        
        Sporangia & Indusia
      - Large persistent diploi
    - - Polypod fern example
      - independent gametophyte
      - Independent sporophyte
  - - - Pine example
        
        Microgametophyte no longer restricted to water
        
        Megagametophyte protected by Integuments
    - - Large dominant diploid stage
      - Gametophyte reduced to microscopic structures
    - - Microgametophyte produces pollen
      - Megagametophyte
        
        Becomes nutritive tissue
        
        Protected by Integuments
        
        Within an ovule
    - - Lily example
      - Sporophyte dominant
      - Gametophytes microscopic
    - - The flowering plants are very diverse
      - Annual to perennial
      - Indeterminate growth
    - - Multicellular haploid stage
      - Pollen grain Is Immature and germination Is mature
    - - Multicellular haploid Individual
      - Egg one of of the cells (nuclei)
- - - - Uni-multicellular projections
      - Anchorage
      - Some with mineral uptake
      - Genes
        
        Predate land plants
        
        Play a role In root hair development
    - - Lepidodendrales extinctasas
      - Dichotomous rooting system
      - Lateral stigmarian rootlets
        
        Root hairs, mixed reports
        
        Highly branched
      - Similar to roots
        
        No chlorophyll
        
        No stomata
        
        Develop gravitropically
      - No root cap
      - Extant species lycophyte
        
        Bifurcating
        
        With root hairs
        
        No quiescent center
    - - Rhynie chert, Zosterophyllophyta, Early Devonian
      - Upright stem, prostrate stems, downward (rootlike) stems
    - - Early without root hairs
      - intact epidermis covered root tip
        
        Anticlinal divisions only
      - Devonian lycophyte Asteroyxlon mackiei
      - independent evolution of endodermis and root cap
      - Root meristem
        
        Diversity of arrangement used to Infer phylogeny
        
        Number of Initial cells difers
        
        Similar genes across plant taxa
        
        Similar genes In shoot to root
  - - - Primary root
        
        Derived from radicle
        
        Main root
        
        Mainly dominant In eudicots
        
        Mainly ephemeral In monocots
      - Lateral roots
        
        Adventitious roots
        
        Derived from stems and leaves
        
        Dominant In monocots
        
        Seminal roots
        
        Derived from mesocotyl
    - - Highly differentiated multicellular axis
      - Found only In sporophytes of vascular plants
      - Functions
        
        Anchors plant body to substrate
        
        Absorbs water
        
        Absorbs dissolved mineral
      - Common features
        
        Apical meristem and root cap
        
        Pericycle
        
        Root hairs
        
        Endodermis
        
        Cortex
    - - Quiescent center
        
        Rarely divides
        
        Backup plan
        
        Behind root cap
      - Behind root cap
    - - Evolved Independently
        
        Lycophyte and euphyllophyte
      - Protect underlying tissues
      - Cells that slough off
      - Secret mucilage
    - - Pluripotent
      - Initiation of lateral root development
      - Just Inside the endodermis
    - - Single celled
      - Major absorption of water and minerals
      - Via osmosis from hypotonic soil solution to hypertonic cells
      - Delicate
      - Short-lived
    - - Large storage area
      - Outermost layers may show
        
        Hypodermis
        
        Exodermis
        
        Casparian strip
        
        Suberized lamella
      - Bound by endodermis and epidermis
    - - Casparian strip
      - Prevents apoplastic movement of water
      - Forces water to move through cell membranes to be filtered
  - - - Selaginella sp example
      - No root cap
      - No root hairs
    - - Diversity
      - Pith In center
      - Endodermis
      - Surrounded by cortex
    - - Diversity
      - No pith
      - Endodermis
      - Cortex
- - - - Present atmospheric level oxygen ~20.9%
        
        ~535x more O2 than CO2
      - During appearance of land plants
        
        8-15x higher In CO2
        
        ~4% O2
        
        Kept tissues thin as Internal environment quickly anoxic
        
        Diffusion limited the size of plants
        
        Caused mutations
        
        Weak ozone
    - - ~470 Ma
      - Major evolutionary changes In morphology and reproduction
      - Multicellular sporophyte
      - Retain the zygote and embryo within the female gametophyte
      - Apical cells with 3 cutting faces allow for 3D parenchymatous tissue
    - - Morphological
        
        Charophycean green algae
        
        Streptophyta
        
        Embryophyta and charophytes
        
        Sometimes grow as flat disc very similar to present day liverworts
        
        Recent study points to plants being terrestrial algae
    - - Spores and tissue fragments are earliest evidence 470 Ma
      - Sporopollenin wall
      - Trilete mark
      - Cryptospores
        
        likely liverwort
        
        no trilete mark
    - - Middle devonian
      - Dichotomously branched
    - - ~425 Ma Mid-late Silurian
      - Gametophytes complex
        
        Stomata
        
        Conducting elements
        
        Similar to extant liverworts
      - Multicellular
    - - Specialized conducting cells
        
        water and food
      - Evidence from spores ~443 Ma
      - Tracheid fossils ~415 Ma
      - Diversity exploded In Devonian (415-360 Ma)
        
        Dominant sporophyte no longer restricted to damper areas
  - - - Alternation of generations
      - Gametophyte dominant In early land plants
      - Sporophyte evolves dominance
    - - All land plant sporophytes but liverworts
      - Ordovician, many seen by Silurian
      - Often aerial surfaces covered with waxy cuticle
        
        For gas exchange
    - - Specialization of cells for water and food conduction
      - Without, plants are small and confined
    - - Downward growing rhizomes
      - Positive gravitropism (with gravity)
      - Negative phototropism (away from light)
      - Evolved a root cap
      - Evolved a new way to branch
        
        Early roots branched at tip
      - Some lineages may have evolved from leaves
    - - Gametophyte
        
        Completely dependent on sporophyte
        
        Egg protected by special layers of tissue
      - Seed ferns (all extinct)
      - Gymnosperm
        
        Naked seed
        
        Pines and spruces
      - Angiosperm
        
        Hidden seed
        
        Sunflower, corn
    - - Stem specialization
      - Everything evolved from leaves
      - Attraction
      - Dispersal
      - Coevolution
    - - Many morphological changes as plants adapted to life on land
      - Further selection from competition
      - Diversification accomodate life cycle changes and evolution
- - - - One of the earliest features of land plants
    - - Small pore bounded by specialized epidermal cells, guard cells
      - Permit rapid gas exchange In higher plants
        
        Oxygen out, carbon dioxide In
      - Control of water loss permit giants among plants
    - - Early Devonian ~400 mya stomata scattered across sporangia
      - Exctinct lineages
        
        Rhyniophytes, cooksonia
      - Similarities link to similar functions In extant angiosperms
        
        Some evidence of air chambers
        
        Bean-like shape
        
        Inner wall thickening
    - - Likely the origin of stomata
      - Stomata near sporophyte sporangia
      - Aid In spore discpersal
      - Likely not regulated
      - May have permitted some CO2 to enter (no Intercellular space)
    - - Support early role different from today
      - Location on non-photosynthetic sporophyte
        tissue In early lineages
      - Extant earl;y lineages have stomata that only open
    - - Pseudostomata continuous with epidermis
        or hypodermis, no space
      - Space filled with fluid with space made by cells pulling apart
      - Stomatal canal, small air space
        
        Aid In diffusion of minerals and nutrients
        from gametophye to sporophyte
        
        Cell death
    - - Monocot (grasses)
        
        Dumbbell shape
        
        Same direction as epidermal cells
      - Eudicot
        
        Kidney-shaped
        
        Random orientation
  - - - Active metabolic processes
        
        Increase turgor pressure
        
        Moves Ions, water follows by osmosis (hypertonic or hypotonic)
      - Cytoskeleton microfibrils radially oriented
    - - Provides ATP for potassium pump
      - Protons are pumped out
      - Potassium moved In
      - Ancestral condition filled with chloroplasts
        
        Independent of blue light
      - Closure at night or under water stress
    - - Amount of water loss to carbon gain
      - Close pore during water stress
        
        Reduce transpiration
        
        Maintain hydration
      - Derived character
      - Reduce probability of cavitation
      - ABA responsive In seed plants
        
        Angiosperms additionally respond to VPD
- - - - High atmospheric global temperatures
      - Low stomatal densities
        
        Increase permit greater evaporative cooling
      - Low capacities for water uptake prior to root evolution
      - Lacking efficient vascular transport In leaves
        
        Burn up leaf
        
        Vascular embolism
    - - Earliest evidence of true leaves
        
        Lycophytes, microphylls/lycophylls
      - Euphyllophytes
        
        Independent evolution
    - - indeterminate growth proceeded leaf development #
      - Leaves Initiated In regular patterns around stem
      - Optimize light Interception for photosynthesis
    - - Leaves had at least five Independent origins #
        
        Liverwort gametophyte
        
        Moss gametophyte
        
        Lycophyte sporophyte
        
        Monilophyte sporophyte
        
        Spermatophyte sporophytes
    - - Mitosis of a single cell
        
        Liverwort
        
        Moss
        
        Moss midvein cell layer
      - Microphyll
        
        Lycophyte
        
        Mitosis of two epidermal cells
      - Frond
        
        Monilophyte
        
        Mitosis of single apical cell
        
        Shoot like development
      - Euphylls
        
        Seed plants
        
        Pool of recruited cells
        
        From flanks of multicellular shoot apical meristem
    - - Lycophyte leaves
      - Progressive elaboration of epidermal outgrowths
      - Vascular strands entered later
      - Fossils consistent (Asteroxylon)
      - Living evidence (Selaginella draussiana)
        
        Two epidermal cells grow to form leaf pair
    - - Evolution of euphylls
      - Overtopping
        
        Unequal branching (primary and side)
      - Planation
        
        Flattening of axes Into two dimensional
      - Webbing
        
        Develop thin tissue between axes of branches
        
        Branches becomes veins
        
        Webbing becomes mesophyll
      - By Devonian euphylls widespread
  - - - Ground tissue
      - Specialized parenchyma
      - Contains chloroplasts
      - Main function Is photosynthesis
    - - Ground tissue
      - Specialized parenchyma
      - Contains air spaces from cells being digested
      - Main function to permit gas-exchange
      - Large air pockets for buoyancy In aquatic plants
    - - Ground tissue
      - Thickened primary cell walls
      - Main function In flexible support
      - Found In bundle sheath of veins In some species
    - - Xylem
        
        Tracheids
        
        Water transport
      - Phloem
        
        Sieve tube element/sieve cells
        
        Companion cells/albuminous cells
        
        Photosynthate transport
      - In veins
    - - Dermal tissue
      - Epidermal cells
      - Guard cells
      - Often cutenized
      - Main function In protecting the Internal tissues