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01 THE 18TH CENTURY: THE ENLIGHTENMENT, DESPOTISM AND PARLIAMENTARIANISM -…

- - - - not accept reasoning that could not be empirically validated through observation and experimentation
    - - truths established by authority and tradition should be criticised
      - reason was the only valid criterion
- - - - made it extremely difficul
        
        to universalise
        
        understand ideas and discoveries
  - - - European phenomenon with France as its main epicentre.
      - Also spread to America
    - - Noblemen
      - Bourgeoisie
      - Clergymen
    - - called on the individual
        
        reason and experience as ways to overcome humanity’s problems
        
        optimistic intellectual movement
        
        expressed hope in the future through different ideas:
        
        Reason
        
        human rationality that could illuminate the darkness and society’s errors
        
        Progress
        
        thought of as the development of knowledge
        
        Happiness
        
        considered an individual right and a societal aspiration
  - - - French magistrate
      - criticised absolute monarchies
      - proposed a moderate monarchy with separation of the executive, legislative and judicial powers
    - - criticised religious fanaticism and the structure of the Church
      - he was in favour of enlightened despotism
        
        he fought for civil rights and judicial reform
    - - He proposed a model of society where sovereignty
        
        in the hands of the people and not of the king
        
        he supported democracy
    - - The political theory of British philosopher John Locke
        
        the first to defend the existence of three individual rights common to all people:
        
        the right to life, liberty and property.
  - - - printed in the press and in books
        
        they were spread by the Encyclopédie
        
        most important book of the Age of Enlightenment
        
        Edited by French Enlightenment thinkers
        
        Diderot and D’Alembert
    - - newspapers were published daily
        
        weekly and on Sundays
    - - spread by word of mouth in gatherings of the nobility and upper middle class
        
        in coffee houses
        
        taverns
        
        salons
    - - were also established
  - - - walthy ones protested
        
        about women’s social situation and tried to improve it
        
        Enlightenment ideas of progress and reasoning
    - - Marie-Thérèse Rodet
        
        attended the literary salons of Paris
        
        became famous for starting her own salon
    - - Women made important scientific and cultural contributions during the Age of Enlightenment
      - MARÍA GAETANA AGNESI
        
        teacher, linguist and mathematician, she spoke several languages
        
        published a number of books on calculus
      - MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT
        
        first women to become known as a feminist
        
        As well as working as a translator, she wrote tales and short storie
      - ÉMILIE DU CHÂTELET
        
        mathematician, physicist and writer
- - - - such as Copernicus’s heliocentric theory
  - - - important institutions, protected by the king in defence of certain aspects of culture
    - - The aim of these societies was to stimulate study and experimentation to improve agriculture and artisan industries
- - - - some of the land was left uncultivated
      - to allow the soil to regenerate, was eliminated
    - - implemented instead, with species such as legume
    - - field was not left fallow and that could be used as food for livestock
    - - such as tomatoes, potatoes and corn, and the shoeing of draft horses was improved
- - - - Absolute monarchies were legitimised by an ideology that supported the superiority of the king’s power over all others
        
        nobility
        
        clergy
        
        parliaments
        
        guilds
      - LOUIS XIV
        
        Louis XIV of France
        
        known as the ‘Sun King’ was the most representative example of an absolute monarchy
    - - developed institutional and legal systems
        
        that controlled the monarch’s power through the action
        
        of the courts and parliaments made up of major landowners, local corporations and the wealthy classes
    - - Parliamentary republican political systems remained in place in some parts of Europe.
      - governed by members of the nobility and wealthy middle class elected by local assemblies
    - - Enlightened despotism was a variant of absolutism
        
        incorporated ‘trickledown’ reforms inspired by the Enlightenment
      - This model was implemented in various European countries starting from the middle of the 18th century
      - Monarchs thought that the Enlightenment ideas of universal progress
        
        and happiness would help them govern more efficiently and legitimise their powe
- - - - the emperor’s son Carlos of Habsburg, archduke of Austria
      - and Prince Felipe of Bourbon, grandson of Louis XIV of France
    - - the Hispanic Monarchy a civil war broke out in 1705 between supporters of the Habsburgs and the Bourbons
  - - - was replaced by cabinets
    - - institutions that had been abolished were mostly replaced by new ones