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Exam II, Gymnosperm vs Angiosperm, Tracheid vs Vessel element,…

- - - - All have vascular tissue
      - Cell type varies
      - Synapomorphy
      - Vascular architecture diverse
      - Early evidence
        
        Cooksonia
        
        Thought to be true tracheids
        
        Annular thickenings
    - - Early vascular group
      - Created towering forests during Carboniferous
  - - - Poikilohydric
        
        Equilibrate water potential through environmental source
        
        Water-storage extend
        
        water content changes with the moisture in the surrounding environment
      - Stayed small to reduce demand for water
      - Live in perennially wet substrates (stream sides)
      - More derived homoiohydric
    - - Water conducting cell
        
        No plasmodesmata (imperforate)
        
        Aid in refilling from cavitation
      - Apomorphic trait (similar function but different origin) to true vascular tissue
      - Bryophytes
      - No lignin
    - - Die at maturity
      - Thickened lignin walls
        
        Waterproofing
        
        Structural support
    - - Lignified tracheids
        
        Annular cell wall
        
        Helical cell wall
        
        Horneophyton
      - During Devonian
        
        Increase in tracheid size
        
        Early tracheids
        
        Relatively long and wide
        
        Ferns
        
        Tracheids + vessel elements in rhizomes of some species
        
        lignified
        
        Lycophytes
        
        Water transport only (no support)
        
        Pit membranes
        
        True tracheids
        
        Function in both
        
        Water transport
        
        Support
        
        rather narrow
        
        Evolved likely once
        
        Tracheophytes
        
        Tapered at ends
        
        Lignified with ornamented walls
        
        Banded or pitted
        
        Pine tracheids
        
        Function in water movement & support
        
        Torus-margo pit membrane
        
        Move to prevent cavitation
        
        Increase in tracheid reinforcement
        
        Increase in xylem content
      - Partially thickened
        
        Rhynia
        
        Vascular tissue not lignified
  - - - Homogenous pit membranes
    - - Elongation
      - Dead at maturity
      - Vacuolization
      - Secondary cell wall
        
        Helical
        
        Reticulate
        
        Annular
        
        Porous
      - Apical meristem
  - - - Alignment along longitudinal arrays of endoplasmic microtubules
        
        Plastids
        
        Mitochondria
        
        ER vesicles
      - Breakdown of tonoplast
        
        Mix vacuolar & cytoplasmic contents
      - Specialized plasmodesmata in end walls
      - Rarely some species have nuclear breakdown
      - Widespread in bryophytes
      - Features common to sieve cells
    - - Gymnosperms only have these
      - Earlier lineages with various types including transitional = sieve elements
      - Strasburger cells
      - Sieve area pores narrow
      - Transport of
        
        Hormones
        
        Electric Signal
        
        Photosynthate
      - Uniform sieve areas
        
        Mostly on ends
        
        Lacks sieve plate
        
        Sieve Plate
        
        Area with many sieve pores
        
        Usually on end wall
        
        Many sieve tube elements together = sieve tube
        
        Sieve tube element & companion cell features
        
        Transport of
        
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        Sieve tube element
        
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        Companion
        
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        Primary cell wall
        
        Living protoplasts at maturity
        
        Few organelles (ER)
        
        Callose and callose plugs
    - - Callose deposited around terminal plasmodesmata
      - Nuclear break down
      - Cytoplasmic clearing
        
        No ribosomes
      - Formation of sieve plate & pores
      - Cell wall thickened
  - - - Key features to Monocots and Eudicots
        
        Monocot
        
        Root with pith
        
        Stem without pith
        
        Eudicot
        
        Root without pith
        
        Stem with pith
      - Root and shoot have different arrangements
      - Increasing complexity
        
        Led to compartmentalization
        
        Selected for a woody habit
        
        Plant height increased
        
        Stem diameter increased
        
        Complexity increased
    - - Siphonostele (~407Ma)
        
        Ring of phloem, xylem, surrounding pith
      - Eustele (~390Ma)
        
        Strands of phloem & xylem separated by parenchyma
        
        progymnosperms
        
        Most complex
      - Protostele (~420Ma)
        
        Solid vascular strand
        
        Phloem surrounds xylem or interspersed
        
        Earliest
    - - Metaxylem
        
        Develops later
        
        Usually larger diameter cells
      - Exarch
        
        Protoxylem outside metaxylem
        
        Eg protosteles
      - Based on xylem maturation
        
        Protoxylem
        
        Usually smaller in diameter
        
        1st xylem to mature
      - Endarch
        
        eg eusteles, atactosteles
        
        Protoxylem in middle
      - Mesarch
        
        Protoxylem surrounded by metaxylem
        
        eg siphonosteles
    - - Protostele
        
        Most ancestral type of stem vasculature
      - Exarch
    - - Siphonostele
        
        Xylem surrounded by phloem
      - Endarch
    - - No pith
      - Vascular bundles often surrounded by sclerenchyma
        
        Bundle sheath
      - Atactostele
        
        Numerous vascular bundles scattered throughout stem
    - - Endarch
        
        Metaxylem outside protoxylem
      - Vascular bundle supported by sclerenchyma, bundle cap
      - Eustele
        
        Bundles separated by parenchyma
        
        Phloem outside xylem
  - - - Carboniferous period greatly drained atmospheric CO2
      - Water demand is relatively high
        
        Water transport system energetically efficient (don’t starve)
        
        Minimal maintenance = cell death
        
        Transport energy minimal
        
        Water filtration close to soil access
      - Amount of water loss per carbon gained increased after Silurian
    - - Higher rates of transpiration
        
        More xylem, wider xylem & longer conduits
      - Likely evolved 5 times
      - Increased competition for light selected for
        
        taller plants
        
        More developed tree canopies
    - - Monocotyledonae
      - Arborescent
        
        No secondary growth
    - - Archaeopteris
        
        Devonian/Carboniferous
        
        Reproduced via spores
      - Extant lineages
        
        Lycophytes
        
        Euphyllophyte
      - Lepidondrids
        
        ~320mya
        
        Vascular cambium only divided internally
        
        Carboniferous
    - - Growth in girth
      - Produce secondary
        
        phloem (inner bark)
        
        Ground tissue (rays)
        
        xylem (wood)
      - Complex plant development
      - Continuous circular ring growth
    - - Ray initials
        
        Stem cells
        
        Ray cells
        
        Interfascicular cambium
      - Periclinal division
        
        More xylem & phloem
      - Fusiform initials
        
        Xylem and phloem
        
        Fascicular cambium
        
        Stem cells
        
        Periclinal division
        
        Anticlinal divisions
      - Anticlinal division
        
        Wider circle of vascular cambium
      - Secondary tissues
        
        Secondary phloem
        
        Parenchyma rays
        
        Secondary xylem
    - - Wood block
        
        Longitudinal
        
        Transverse
        
        Unique for each face
        
        Radial
      - Initials
        
        Fusiform - longitudinal
        
        Ray - radial
    - - Phloem is crushed
      - Ring width determined by season and environment
      - Xylem secondary cell walls robust
      - Alternation of
        
        Early Wood
        
        Late Wood
        
        Early vs Late
        
        Spring to fall
        
        Larger elements to smaller elements
        
        Based on season or environment
    - - Sapwood
        
        Functions in water transport
      - Heartwood
        
        Functions in storage
        
        Can no longer transport water
    - - Softwood
        
        Little room for fibers
        
        Gymnosperms
        
        Tracheids only
      - Hardwood
        
        Vessel elements’ efficiency permit space for fibers
        
        Angiosperms
    - - Vascular tissue
        
        Xylem
        
        Wood
        
        Primary and Secondary
        
        Phloem
        
        Inner bark
        
        Phloem & cortex
        
        Secondary
        
        Primary squished
        
        Lots of fibers
      - Periderm
        
        Phellem
        
        Cork
        
        Phellogen
        
        Cork cambium
        
        Outer bark
        
        Phelloderm
      - Ground tissue
        
        Rays connect
        
        Pith
        
        Cortex
    - - Outer bark
      - Inner Bark
        
        Phloem & cortex
      - Periderm
        
        Phellogen
        
        Cork Cambium
        
        Phelloderm
        
        Phellem
        
        Cork
- - - - character newer than
    - - character older than
    - - apomorphy shared by two or more taxa
      - hypothesized to have evolved in their most recent common ancestor
      - synonymous with homology
    - - trait has gained or lost independently in separate lineages during evolution
      - convergent evolution leads to species independently sharing a trait that is different from the trait inferred to have been present in their common ancestor
    - - derived novel trait
    - - independent evolution of a similar trait in two or more taxa.
    - - Bryophytes are not
        
        Unique mutant
      - Current day Lycophytes
      - Laid foundation for multiple sporangia (polysporangiate)
        
        Large complex plants
        
        Specialized organ systems
      - Simple early fossils
        
        Cooksonia eg
      - Splitting shoot tip into 2
    - - Displace sporangium
        
        Side axial
        
        On leaf
      - Necessary prior to indeterminancy
      - Polysporantiate
      - Some tips sterile
    - - Lycophytes various branching structures
      - Equal branching
        
        Isotomous
      - Evolved prior to vascularization
      - Unequal branching
        
        Anisotomous
  - - - Charophytes mainly filamentous
      - Bryophytes protonema
        
        Filamentous
        
        Apical bud
    - - Continuously divides
      - Matures in to transition tissues
        
        Procambium
        
        Protoderm
        
        Ground meristem
      - Totipotent region
  - - - Cytokinesis in a single plane
      - Only divide at tip
      - Leafy shoot growth in three dimensions
        
        Cytokinesis in oblique planes
  - - - Produce new organs
      - Produce new tissue
      - From shoot apex
    - - Indeterminate meristems evolved independently
        
        Fern (monilophyte) gametophyte
        
        Vascular plant sporophyte
        
        Bryophyte gametophyte
      - Vascular plant meristems may have evolved independently
        
        Lycophytes (multicellular)
        
        Monilophytes (single cell)
        
        Spermatophytes (multicellular)
- - - - Anchorage
      - Some with mineral uptake
      - Uni-multicellular projections
      - Genes
        
        play a role in root hair development
        
        predate land plants
    - - Lateral stigmarian rootlets
        
        Root hairs, mixed reports
        
        Highly branched
      - Similar to roots
        
        No chlorophyll
        
        No stomata
        
        Develop gravitropically
      - Dichotomous rooting system
      - No root cap
      - Lepidodendrales extinct
      - Extant species lycophyte
        
        With root hairs
        
        Bifurcating
        
        No quiescent center
    - - Upright stem, prostrate stems, downward (rootlike) stems
      - Rhynie chert, Zosterophyllophyta, Early Devonian
    - - Intact epidermis covered root tip
        
        Anticlinal divisions only
      - Devonian lycophyte Asteroxylon mackiei
      - Early without root hairs
      - Independent evolution of
        
        Endodermis
        
        Root Cap
    - - Similar genes across plant taxa
      - Similar genes in shoot to root
      - Diversity of arrangement used to infer phylogeny
        
        Number of initial cells differs
  - - - Primary root
        
        Main root
        
        Mainly dominant in eudicots
        
        Derived from radicle
        
        Mainly ephemeral in monocots
      - Lateral roots
        
        Adventitious roots
        
        Dominant in monocots
        
        Derived from stems & leaves
        
        Seminal roots
        
        Derived from mesocotyl
    - - Found only in sporophytes of vascular plants
      - Functions
        
        Anchors plant body to substrate
        
        Absorbs water
        
        Absorbs dissolved minerals
      - Highly differentiated multicellular axis
      - Common features
        
        Apical meristem & root cap
        
        Pericycle
        
        Initiation of lateral root development
        
        Just inside the endodermis
        
        Pluripotent
        
        Endodermis
        
        Prevents apoplastic movement of water
        
        Forces water to move through cell membranes to be filtered
        
        Casparian strip
        
        Cortex
        
        Outermost layers may show
        
        Hypodermis
        
        Exodermis
        
        Casparian strip
        
        Suberized lamella
        
        Bound by endodermis and epidermis
        
        Large storage area
        
        Root hairs
        
        Major absorption of water and minerals
        
        Via osmosis from hypotonic soil solution to hypertonic cells
        
        Single celled
        
        Delicate
        
        Short lived
    - - Quiescent center
        
        Backup plan
        
        Maintains initial cells
        
        Rarely divides
      - Behind root cap
        
        Root cap
        
        Protect underlying tissues
        
        Cells that slough off
        
        Evolved independently
        
        Lycophyte
        
        Euphyllophyte
        
        Secrete mucilage
  - - - No root cap
      - No root hairs
      - Selaginella sp example
    - - Pith in center
      - Endodermis
      - Diversity
      - Surrounded by cortex
      - Details
        
        Pericycle
        
        Xylem
        
        Epidermis
        
        Phloem
        
        Endodermis
        
        Casparian strip
        
        Pith
        
        Cortex
  - - - Endodermis
        
        Casparian strip
      - Pericycle
      - Cortex
      - Xylem
      - Epidermis
      - Phloem
- - - - Low stomatal densities
        
        Increase permit greater evaporative cooling
      - Low capacities for water uptake prior to root evolution
      - High atmospheric global temperatures
      - Lacking efficient vascular transport in leaves
        
        Burn up Leaves
        
        Vascular embolism
    - - Earliest evidence of true leaves
        
        Lycophytes
        
        microphylls/ lycophylls
      - Euphyllophytes
        
        Independent evolution
    - - Leaves initiated in regular patterns around stem
      - Optimize light interception for photosynthesis
      - Indeterminate growth proceeded leaf development
    - - Leaves had at least 5 independent origins
        
        Lycophyte sporophyte
        
        Monilophyte sporophyte
        
        Moss gametophyte
        
        Spermatophyte sporophyte
        
        Liverwort gametophyte
    - - Microphyll
        
        Lycophyte
        
        Mitosis of 2 epidermal cells
      - Frond
        
        Monilophyte
        
        Mitosis of single apical cell
        
        Shoot like development
      - Mitosis of a single cell
        
        Liverwort
        
        Moss
        
        Moss midvein cell layer
      - Euphylls
        
        Pool of recruited cells
        
        From flanks of multicellular shoot apical meristem
        
        Seed plants
    - - Vascular strands entered later
      - Fossils consistent
        
        Asteroxylon
      - Progressive elaboration of epidermal outgrowths
      - Living evidence
        
        Selaginella draussiana
        
        2 epidermal cells grow to form leaf pair
      - Lycophyte leaves
    - - Overtopping
        
        Unequal branching (primary & side)
      - Planation
        
        Flattening of axes into 2 dimensional
      - Evolution of euphylls
      - Webbing
        
        Branches becomes veins
        
        Webbing becomes mesophyll
        
        Develop thin tissue between axes of branches
      - By Devonian euphylls widespread
  - - - Specialized parenchyma
      - Contains chloroplasts
      - Ground tissue
      - Main function is photosynthesis
    - - Contains air spaces from cells being digested
      - Main function permit gas-exchange
      - Specialized parenchyma
      - Large air pockets for buoyancy in aquatic plants
      - Ground tissue
    - - Thickened primary cell walls
      - Main function in flexible support
      - Ground tissue
      - Found in bundle sheath of veins in some species
    - - Phloem
        
        Sieve tube element/ sieve cells
        
        Companion cells/ albuminous cells
        
        Photosynthate transport
      - In veins
      - Xylem
        
        Water transport
        
        Tracheids
    - - Guard cells
      - Often cutenized
      - Epidermal cells
      - Main function in protecting the internal tissues
      - Dermal tissue
  - - - Vascular strand connects directly to stem
      - Mesophyll
      - Single vascular trace along center of blade
      - Epidermis
      - Microphyll
      - Stomata
    - - Mesophyll
      - Veins
        
        Surrounded by bundle sheaths
      - Epidermis
        
        Covered by cuticle
        
        Contains stomata
        
        Adaxial (outer) & abaxial (towards stem)
        
        bulliform cells
        
        helpful for the rolling and unrolling
    - - Mesophyll
        
        Palisade
        
        Photosynthesis
        
        Spongy
        
        Gas Exchange
      - Veins
        
        Bundle sheath cells
        
        Xylem on top phloem on bottom
      - Epidermis
        
        Cuticle
        
        Upper & lower
        
        Dermal tissue
        
        Guard cells
        
        Epidermal cells
- - - - Stomata
        
        Permit rapid gas exchange in higher plants
        
        O2 out
        
        CO2 in
        
        Control of water loss permit giants among plants
        
        Small pore bounded by specialized epidermal cells, guard cells
        
        Lower stomatal frequency
        
        Location on non-photosynthetic sporophyte tissue in early lineages
        
        Extant early lineages have stomata that only open
        
        Support early role different from today
    - - Extinct Lineages
        
        Rhyniophytes
        
        Cooksonia
      - Similarities link to similar functions in extant angiosperms
        #
        
        Some evidence of air chambers
        
        Bean-like shape
        
        Inner wall thickening
      - Early Devonian sporangia ~400 mya stomata scattered across sporangia
    - - Aid in spore dispersal
      - Likely not regulated
      - Stomata near sporophyte sporangia
      - May have permitted some CO2 to enter
        
        No intercellular space
      - Likely the origin of stomata
    - - Space filled with fluid with space made by cells pulling apart
      - Stomatal canal, small air space
        
        Aid in diffusion of minerals and nutrients from gametophyte to sporophyte
        
        Cell death
      - Pseudostomata continuous with epidermis or hypodermis, no space
    - - Monocot (grasses)
        
        Dumbbell shape
        
        Same direction as epidermal cells
      - Eudicot
        
        Kidney-shaped
        
        Random orientation
  - - - Cytoskeleton microfibrils radially oriented
      - Active metabolic processes
        
        Increase turgor pressure
        
        Moves ions, water follows by osmosis
        
        Hypotonic to hypertonic
    - - Potassium moved in
      - Ancestral condition filled with chloroplasts
        
        Independent of blue light
      - Closure at night or under water stress
      - Protons are pumped out
      - Provides ATP for potassium pump
    - - Derived character
      - Reduce probability of cavitation
      - Close pore during water stress
        
        Reduce transpiration
        
        Maintain hydration
      - ABA responsive in seed plants
        
        Angiosperms additionally respond to VPD
      - Amount of water loss to carbon gain
- - - - Alternation of Generations
        
        Current land plants
        
        Predictions
        
        Heteromorphic Generations
        
        Sporophyte
        
        Short Lived
        
        Simple
        
        Small, temporary structure
        
        Parasitic on gametophyte
        
        Meiosis occurs within sporangium
        
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        Gametophyte
        
        Relatively Complex
        
        Persistence
        
        Gametophyte Dominant
        
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        Bryophyta
        
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        Haplodiplontic (single double being)
        
        Antithetic Theory