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1830, Modern Colonialism, The Enlightenment/Age of
Reason, 1815, 1685,…
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The Battle of Ceuta in 1415 marked the beginning of Portuguese imperial expansion during the Age of Exploration, establishing a foothold in North Africa and paving the way for further exploration and conquest beginning the Portuguese Empire.
Robert Hooke (1635–1703) an English scientist is well-known for his assertion that fossils are the remains of former plants and animals emphasizing their biological origins in his work Micrographia (1665)
Archbishop James Ussher (1581–1656) was an Irish archbishop and theologian best known for his chronology of the Bible, which he used to calculate the young Earth model.
He determined that the Earth was created on October 23, 4004 BCE, based on biblical genealogies and historical records.
Nicholas Steno (1638–1686) Danish geologist and anatomist, one of the founders of modern stratigraphy. The Law of Superposition states in undisturbed sedimentary layers, older layers are found below younger ones, and the Principle of Original Horizontality, sediments are deposited in horizontal layers.
Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist known for binomial nomenclature, a formal system for naming and classifying organisms. This system assigns each species a two-part Latin name: the first part indicates the genus and the second specifies the species, ie: Homo sapiens.
He established a hierarchical framework for taxonomy based on shared characteristics.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829) French naturalist known for his theory of evolution, which proposed the concept of acquired characteristics where organisms could pass traits acquired during their lifetime to their offspring.
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Georges Cuvier (1769–1832) French naturalist and paleontologist known for his contributions to catastrophism and stratigraphy. He proposed that the Earth's geological features and fossil record were shaped by a series of sudden, catastrophic events, such as natural disasters, rather than by gradual processes. Credited for his work in stratigraphy allowing for the chronological ordering of fossils in rock layers.
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Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002) paleontologist and evolutionary biologist who developed the theory of punctuated equilibrium
suggesting species remain relatively stable for long periods, with evolutionary changes occurring rapidly during short, intense bursts, often due to environmental shifts.
W.E.B. Du Bois (1868–1963) African-American scholar and civil rights activist who championed human equality. The Souls of Black Folk (1903) laid the intellectual groundwork for the civil rights movement.
Franz Boas (1858–1942) pioneering anthropologist known for his advocacy of human equality challenging the prevailing ideas of racial hierarchy emphasizing the role of culture, rather than biology, in shaping human behavior and achievements, debunking scientific racism.
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) British naturalist who independently conceived the theory of natural selection around the same time as Charles Darwin. Wallace observed that species evolve by the survival and reproduction of individuals with advantageous traits, which are passed on to future generations. His correspondence with Darwin in 1858 led to the joint presentation of their ideas on evolution.
Charles Darwin (1809–1882) developed the theory of natural selection where organisms with favorable traits survive and reproduce, leading to evolution over time and adaptive radiation, where species evolve different traits to adapt to new environments. 'On the Origin of Species' (1859), revolutionized our understanding of biology and evolution.
Charles Lyell (1797–1875) known for his theories of uniformitarianism which proposed that Earth’s geological features were shaped by slow, consistent processes, like erosion and sedimentation, over long periods, rather than by sudden catastrophes and deep time. And deep time which emphasized the age of the Earth as being far greater than the few thousand years previously believed. His book 'Principles of Geology' influenced Charles Darwin and the development of evolutionary biology.
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