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U43 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - The Celts were the first people to settle in Britain followed by the Romans, who invaded the island in the year 43 AD, ruling the Celts until 410 AD. The Celts learnt to coexist with the invading Romans, who brought literacy over the island.
  - - - The most crucial event in the history of Britain was when William, Duke of Normandy, invaded England, defeating the Anglo-Saxon King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. William became William the Conqueror and established the Norman dynasty.
      - Battle of Hastings (1066)
    - - The Norman aristocracy spoke Old Norman French, while the Anglo-Saxons continued to speak Old English. For centuries after the conquest, French became the language of the court, law, and administration, while Latin remained the language of the Church. English persisted as the language of the common people. Over time, however, Norman French & Old English blended, giving rise to Middle English.
      - Clash & fusion of cultures
  - - - Christianization & the Latin alphabet
      - The conversion to Christianity began with St. Augustine of Canterbury's mission in 597 AD, which led to the establishment of Christianity as the dominant religion in England. Over time, pagan rulers accepted Christianity, influencing the culture and governance of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
    - - When Roman legions withdrew from the islands (410) at the fall of Roman Britain, the native Britons faced invasions from the pagan German /Anglo-Saxon tribes (the Angles, Saxons & Jutes), resulting in the eventual establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms such as Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria, & East Anglia.
        
        These invaders brought their continental dialects with them, and its fusion became Old English. They also brought their oral literature, which was mostly lyric & epic.
      - Anglo-Saxon invasions
    - - From the late 8th c., Viking raids ravaged England, and by the 9th c., large parts of the country were under Viking control (the Danelaw). King Alfred the Great of Wessex successfully resisted the Vikings, establishing a legacy of unification & resistance, leading to the eventual reconquest of Viking territories. Over time, the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were consolidated into a single kingdom of England.
      - Viking invasions & Unification of England
  - - - The Plantagenets came to power in 1154. Its first king, Henry II ruled not only England but also a vast territory in France, known as the Angevin Empire. The Plantagenets engaged in extensive wars. Edward I sought to conquer Wales and subjugate Scotland, while Edward III began the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) with France.
        
        The Black Death (1348-50) was a catastrophic outbreak of bubonic plague that struck/ravaged England, killing a large percentage of the population (estimated 30-50% of death toll) and leading to significant social & economic breakdown, as there were simply not enough workers to tend to the fields or perform the necessary tasks to maintain the economy.
      - & the Hundred Years' War
        (1154-1399)
  - - - This culminated in the Wars of the Roses (1455-1487), a series of civil wars between the House of Lancaster (symbolized by the red rose) and the House of York (symbolized by the white rose) over control of the English throne after the premature death of Henry V. The conflict ended with the rise of the Tudors: when Henry Tudor (Lancastrian) defeated Richard III (Yorkist) at Bosworth Field and acceded to the throne as Henry VII, marking the end of the Middle Ages & the beginning of the Tudor dynasty.
      - Wars of the Roses (1455-1487)
- - - - With the Christianization of the country in 597 AD, religious poems were taught by monks & priests, and people recited them orally. The Latin alphabet (essential for writing the Bible, religious texts, and prayers) was introduced as part of this process, replacing the indigenous runic writing system. And one of the earliest churchmen, Bede, produced "Ecclesiastical History of the English People" (731 AD), one of the most important sources of knowledge about the period as the first comprehensive history of England. Bede wrote in Latin & is regarded as one of the most accurate historians of the Middle Ages, making an effort to provide dates & source references in his work, distinguishing btw facts he could verify & miraculous stories.
  - - - Initially transmitted orally, following strict metrical patterns that made it easier to memorize and recite. Poetry of that time was mostly religious and the most famous one is that of Cædmon, whose poetry was about sacred themes, and its aim was to turn men from sin to righteousness. Apart from religion, writers also wrote about historical events recounting the history of the Anglo-Saxons, and here we find the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicles", written during the reign of King Alfred the Great in the 9th century.
        
        Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales is the most famous poet of the Middle English period. It is a collection of stories told in verse and prose by a group of pilgrims.
  - - - Ballads are a form of narrative folk song or poem popular among common people & often performed by minstrels. Unlike the grand epics, ballads tended to focus on community life, such as love, tragedy & local legends. Ballads often use simple language to tell stories, often focusing on dramatic events such as betrayal, murder, romance, or moral lessons.
        
        Robin Hood, for example, a legendary outlaw hero of English folklore who "robbed from the rich and gave to the poor". He made his appearance in traditional ballads before entering other types of literature, reflecting popular concerns with justice, tyranny & the rights of the common people.
  - - - The Romance originated in France and evolved from the epic tradition, shifting its focus from wars to courtly love, chivalry & adventure. Typical stories concern a noble knight who goes on quests, tournaments, or contests with monsters expressing devotion to a lady of high birth (usually unattainable or already married), whose favor he seeks to win through his deeds. They also include magical elements such as enchanted castles & mythical creatures.
        
        King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table are some of the most enduring examples of medieval romance.
  - - - Traditional epics focus on a central hero (often of noble or royal birth) who undertakes a dangerous quest. They include supernatural elements, creating myths & legends of nationhood and often embedded in a supernatural & mystic atmosphere. They explore themes of heroism, battle, exile, loss, and the transience of life.
        
        Beowulf (8th-10th c.) is the most famous Old English epic. It recounts the heroic deeds of Beowulf, a warrior who battles monsters like Grendel and a dragon. Originally transmitted orally, it was written down by Christian monks in the 10th c.
- - - - The earliest references to Arthur come from the oral Celtic tradition, where he was depicted as a warrior leader who fought against invaders (likely the Saxons) around the 5th-6th c. However, these early depictions of Arthur were less about chivalry & courtly romance and more about heroic warfare & defending Britain from external threats.
    - - Then, the legend was significantly expanded in 12th-c. French romances. Chrétien de Troyes’ works, written for the courts of France, helped shift the focus of the legend from Arthur himself to the adventures of his knights. He introduced courtly love by further developing characters like Lancelot & Arthur's wife Guinevere, whose love affair becomes central to many later retellings. Also, in the quest for the Holy Grail, introducing the idea of a spiritual quest tied to Christian symbolism.
    - - Geoffrey of Monmouth’s "The History of the Kings of Britain" (Historia Regum Britanniae,1136) is one of the most significant early sources of the Arthurian legend. It transforms Arthur into a king rather than just a warrior, introducing figures like Merlin & Mordred, along with the sword Excalibur & Arthur's magical conception.
    - - One of the most influential and comprehensive versions of the Arthurian legend is "Le Morte d’Arthur" by Sir Thomas Malory. Malory’s work brings together many of the scattered tales & traditions into a unified narrative. It covers Arthur’s entire life, from his birth to his death, and includes key episodes such as:
        
        Arthur’s rise to kingship after pulling the sword Excalibur from the stone.
        
        The establishment of Camelot and the Knights of the Round Table.
        
        The tragic love triangle between Arthur, Guinevere & Lancelot, which ultimately leads to the downfall of Camelot.
        
        The quest for the Holy Grail, a symbol of both spiritual purity and divine favor.
        
        The individual quests of the knights, especially Sir Lancelot, Sir Gawain, and Sir Galahad.
        
        Arthur’s death at the hands of his son/nephew Mordred in the Battle of Camlann, leading to the collapse of his kingdom.
  - - - The lengend's central figure, the ideal king, and a symbol of justice, courage & wisdom. According to tradition, Arthur was the son of Uther Pendragon and was raised in secrecy by the wizard Merlin. He becomes king by pulling the sword Excalibur from a stone, signifying his divine right to rule.
        
        His reign represents a golden age of prosperity, justice & chivalry where all knights are considered equal, but his tragic flaw is his inability to manage the love affair between Lancelot & Guinevere and his trust in Mordred, leading to the kingdom's collapse.
    - - Arthur’s wife embodies the ideal of courtly love but also becomes a figure of betrayal due to her affair with Sir Lancelot, seting off a chain of events that weakens Arthur’s rule and divides the Knights of the Round Table
    - - The most relevant of Arthur's knights, known for his bravery, loyalty & skill in battle. However, Lancelot’s betrayal of Arthur, despite his loyalty to the king, creates a deep personal & moral conflict. In later romances, during his quest for the Holy Grail, his sins prevent him from attaining it. The Holy Grail is the cup used by Christ at the Last Supper, representing both a physical & spiritual quest.
        
        Galahad
        
        Lancelot's son, Galahad, is the purest of the knights and the only one who succeeds in this quest. The Knights of the Round Table are a group of Arthur’s most trusted & noble warriors. Each knight embodies the ideals of chivalry, where knights adhere to a code of conduct (the knightly code) that emphasizes loyalty, bravery & honor.
      - The Holy Grail & The Knights of the Round Table
    - - He is a magician, prophet & mentor of Arthur. He helps Arthur acquire Excalibur & become king, advises him on his kingdom’s affairs, and is responsible for the creation of the Round Table. In many versions, Merlin is eventually betrayed by the mysterious Lady of the Lake, his former pupil.
    - - The antagonist in the Arthurian legend, he is Arthur’s illegitimate son (sometimes his nephew) and is prophesied to bring about Arthur’s death & the downfall of Camelot. Mordred’s rebellion against Arthur culminates in the Battle of Camlann, where he kills Arthur but is also fatally wounded.
- - - - Born in the cosmopolitan city of London into a prosperous middle-class family of wine merchants. From childhood he was exposed to a variety of influential people of all sorts, heard several languages spoken, became fluent in French and received schooling in Latin, logic, rhetoric & classical literature at a grammar school.
        
        Chaucer wasn’t just a writer. He held various roles throughout his life, including a translator, courtier, diplomat, philosopher, bureaucrat & soldier. He worked for three successive kings: Edward III, Richard II & Henry IV. His various jobs allowed him to travel extensively & encounter people from all walks of life, which influenced The Canterbury Tales.
        
        Chaucer was multilingual, speaking not only English, but also Latin, French & Italian. This linguistic proficiency allowed him to translate major works from these languages and incorporate foreign literary influences into his own works.
        
        Chaucer was one of the first English authors to write in Middle English at a time when Latin & French were the dominant literary languages in England. His choice to write in the vernacular made literature more accessible to a broader audience. This decision was pivotal in shaping the future of English literature.
        
        THE CANTERBURY TALES
        
        Unfinished masterpiece
        
        Written in Middle English (vernacular)
        
        Satire & portrait of medieval society
        
        Diversity of genres & styles
        
        While Chaucer initially planned for it to be a collection of 120 stories, where each of the 30 pilgrims would tell 4 stories (two on the way to Canterbury & two on the way back), only 24 tales were written before his death in 1400. Despite being unfinished, the diversity of the tales, and their blend of humor, drama, and insight into human nature, have ensured its lasting impact as one of the most important works in English literature.
        
        At a time when Latin & French were the dominant languages for literature, Chaucer chose to write The Canterbury Tales in Middle English, the language spoken by common people. This choice of the vernacular helped popularize the use of English in literature, contributing to its development as a literary language, and made his work accessible to a broader audience.
        
        The pilgrimage structure (a framed story where each pilgrim tells a tale along the way to entertain the group) allows Chaucer to introduce a wide range of characters, from different social classes & backgrounds, offering a rich cross-section of medieval society in the 14th c. Also, he provides a biting commentary on medieval society, addressing issues like corruption in the Church, the greed of the upper classes, and the hypocrisies of people from all walks of life.
        
        Each of the tales belongs to a different literary genre or style, showcasing Chaucer’s versatility as a writer, keeping readers engaged & adding depth to the work. There is a tale for every taste, satisfying a wide range of audiences from the philosophical to the obscene & humorous. In other words, they appeal to both upper class & popular audiences.
        
        (1387-✞)
        
        Thanks to his father's social connections, at the age of 17 Chaucer was placed in one of the great aristocratic households of England, the Countess of Ulster, where he acquired the manners & skills for a career as court servant (page) of royal households. This prestigious position for a young man of his social class allowed him to witness politics first-hand, travel extensively & build further connections.
        
        During his military service in the Hundred Years' War (1359), where he was exposed to French culture, he was captured by the French, but Edward III paid a ransom of £16 for his release, a signficant amount at the time, showing Chaucer's value to the English court.
        
        As part of his administrative roles & service to the crown, he was sent on diplomatic missions to Italy, being brought into direct contact with the culture & literature of the Italian Renaissance, with writers like Dante, Petrarch or Boccaccio, who would influence Canterbury Tales.
        
        Entry into the court
        
        Military service & ransom
        
        Diplomatic missions to Italy