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psychology paper 3 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - researchers should reflect on and record the possibility that their own biases might have interfered with the data collection or interpretation
    - - understanding the strengths and limitations of the method used to collect data and acknowledging this within conclusions
  - - - using multiple different research methods to study the same topic in order to compensate for limitations of one method over another
    - - using more than one researcher to collect or analyze data (training and discussion can be used to reach agreement on what was seen/found)
- - - - having a sample that will give data that doesn't reflect the target population well
    - - when researchers omit or underreport information that doesn't fit well with their conclusions
    - - when a researcher's prior beliefs impacts the way research is conducted or analyzed
    - - when the wording of a question influences the way a participant responds
  - - - when one participant's answers dominate a conversation, shutting down others
    - - participants are aware of what the researcher is testing and tries to perform well
    - - when participants generally answer accurately but then give distorted answers for particularly sensitive topics
    - - when participants act differently because they are being watched
    - - when participants answer questions or act in a way that makes them look good (social expectation)
  - - - method
        
        using multiple different research methods to study the same topic in order to compensate for limitations of one method over another
      - researcher
        
        using more than one researcher to collect or analyze data (training and discussion can be used to reach agreement on what was seen/found)
    - - epistemological
        
        understanding the strengths and limitations of the method used to collect data and acknowledging this within conclusions
      - personal
        
        recognizing how personal beliefs and expectations of the researcher may influence data collection and interpretation (identify areas where this may have happened and adjust)
      - journal
        
        researchers should reflect on and record the possibility that their own biases might have interfered with the data collection or interpretation
    - - or a similarly structured process that allows for thorough and fair consideration of all data (aim for data saturation where no new information can be extracted from the data)
    - - researchers should ensure that participants are comfortable being open and honest
    - - actively considering alternative explanations for findings or considering alternative theoretical interpretations of the data
    - - researcher training
        
        ensuring that they are experienced and develop the necessary skills to think on their feet and conduct research in ways that prevents bias from affecting the data collection
      - ensuring that any researcher who interacts with participants is a good match for the characteristics of the sample
    - - double-blind design
        
        information that could introduce bias is withheld both from the participants and from the people conducting the experiment
      - blind analysis
        
        having a neutral researcher who wasn't involved in instigating the study or collecting data to analyze the findings
    - - having a strong emphasis on ethical integrity and not incentivising or pressuring researchers to find a positive result in research
    - - participants are unaware they are being observed
    - - using a sampling technique that removes researcher-selection
- - - - share some characteristics with lab experiment but not possible to randomly allocate participants to treatments
      - lack internal validity as there can be uncontrolled variables that led to participants to be in one group and not the other
    - - the independent variable is naturally occurring, outside of the researcher's control
      - lack internal validity as change in DV may have been due to extraneous factors
    - - effect of IV on DV but takes place under real-world environments not controlled conditions
      - participants are unaware they are being observed and their behavior is more natural so increases ecological validity but not able to control extraneous variables so decreases internal validity
    - - no manipulated variables (co-variables) so do not seek to establish cause and effect relationships
      - common where it may not be possible to ethically and practically manipulate variables
    - - independent variable which they manipulate and dependent variable which they measure in a quantitative way
      - all other variables which may affect the dependent variable are held constant (controlled variables) so they have a strong internal validity
  - - - focus on a single individual, group or organization that is unusual in some way
      - method triangulation so results in rich and detailed insight into behaviors of interest
    - - clear research objective and the interview schedule includes broad topics for discussion but questions are all spontaneous
      - interviewer needs more training and experience to collect credible data
    - - flexible as has predetermined set of questions in the interview schedule but interviewer may deviate from this
      - may include both open and closed questions (open qs prompt longer and richer answers while closed qs prompt brief and precise answers)
    - - 8-12 people who are interviewed together about a topic of common interest
      - researcher becomes the group facilitator and role is to monitor the discussion, keep the group on topic and ensure all issues raised are responded and explored as fully as possible within the time available
    - - collects data from participants in their natural environment without any manipulation of setting
      - participants are unaware of the observer so lead to credible data collection (ethical if taking place in a public setting)
    - - collects data from participants in their natural environment without any manipulation of setting
      - researcher stays removed from the group they are studying and does not interact with participants so lead to more accurate record of events
    - - researcher becomes actively involved in the group they are studying so increases credibility
      - collects data from participants in their natural environment without any manipulation of setting
- - - - affected by level of control, realism and artificality
    - - affected by sample technique and size
  - - - affected by similarity of contexts/groups of people
    - - affected by level of representation within sample