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Anatomy, GEM Foundation: structure, function & defence - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Left Ventricle
        
        Systematic Arteries
        
        Systematic Capillaries
        
        Systematic Veins
        
        Right Attrium
        
        Right Ventricle
        
        1 more item...
        
        Systematic Circulation
    - - Arteries
        
        Carry blood away from the heart
        
        Small Arteries known as Arterioles
      - Veins
        
        Carry blood towards the heart
        
        Small veins known as Venules
      - Capillaries
        
        Small vessels that connect the arteries and veins
        
        Allow for the exchange of substances such as nutrients, oxygen and waste products within the body tissues
        
        often found in groups known as capillary beds
      - Tunica adventitia
        
        Protective outer connective tissue layer
      - Tunica media
        
        Smooth muscle, allowing the blood vessel to narrow and dilate
      - Tunica intima
        
        Endothelium
        
        One-cell thick epithelial layer directly in contact with the bloodstream
        
        Basement membrane/Basal lamina
        
        Underlying sheet
        
        A layer of elastic fibres
    - - Continuous
        
        Have no gaps in their endothelium or basement membrane and the endothelial cells are sealed together by tight junctions
        
        Only allow the transport of smaller substances like gases, ions and small proteins across the cell membranes and cytoplasm
      - Fenestrated
        
        Have small gaps in their endothelium but the basement membrane is still continuous
        
        small intestine
        
        endocrine organs
        
        kidney
        
        Allow larger proteins to enter or exit the bloodstream, depending on which organ
      - Sinusoidal
        
        sometimes referred to as 'sinusoids'
        
        Have large gaps which look like pores in both the endothelium and the basement membrane
        
        spleen
        
        liver
        
        bone marrow
        
        Gaps are important for allowing much larger structures like red or white blood cells to enter or exit the bloodstream
    - - "great vessels"
      - The aorta
        
        largest blood vessel in the body
        
        ascending aorta
        
        left and right coronary arteries
        
        supply the cardiac muscle
        
        aortic arch
        
        brachiocephalic trunk
        
        left common carotid artery
        
        left subclavian artery
        
        descending/thoracic aorta
        
        abdominal aorta
      - pulmonary trunk
        
        pulmonary arteries
        
        One trunk from the right ventricle which soon divides into two arteries carrying deoxygenated blood to either lung
      - pulmonary veins
        
        four vessels (two left, two right)
        
        carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium
      - superior vena cava
        
        carries deoxygenated venous blood from the upper half of the body
        
        To the Right Attrium
      - inferior vena cava
        
        carries deoxygenated venous blood from the lower half of the body
  - - - Collecting excess interstitial fluid (extracellular fluid)
        
        Lost from capillary beds during normal bodily processes
        
        Nutrient exchange
        
        pathogens
        
        white blood cells
        
        hormones
        
        debris from broken-down cells/microbes
      - Lymph
        
        Combined fluid when it's inside a lymphatic vessel
        
        colourless in appearance
        
        Drains to
        
        cisterna chyli
        
        thoracic duct
        
        drain into the venous system
        
        left venous angle
        
        1 more item...
        
        right venous angle
        
        1 more item...
        
        equivalent in the lymphatic system of a large vessel like the aorta or inferior vena cava
        
        Lymph from the lower half of the body
      - lacteals
        
        lymphatic vessels in the small intestine
        
        absorb dietary fats
        
        important route for transporting fat from the gut
        
        chyle
        
        Milky, opaque lymph
      - look quite like veins in terms of their physical structure
    - - right lymphatic duct
        
        lymph from
        
        right upper limb
        
        right side of the thorax
        
        right side of the head & neck
    - - small bean-shaped structures
      - connected to lymphatic vessels
      - important for the body's ability to defend against infection
      - act like 'checkpoints' or filters in the lymphatic system to detect pathogens
      - Inside
        
        clusters of white blood cells
        
        lymphocytes
        
        help to identify and destroy pathogens before they can reach the venous circulation
        
        macrophages
      - have a cortex and medulla
      - afferent lymphatic vessels drain into
      - efferent lymphatic vessels drain away
    - - lymphadenopathy
        
        Enlarged Lymph nodes
        
        a result of pathology and the immune response
        
        highly clinically significant
        
        Superficial lymph nodes close to the skin may also be palpable
        
        visible when they enlarge
      - metastatic cells from a primary tumour
        
        could become lodged in nearby lymph nodes and grow there as secondary tumours
        
        metastases
        
        Lymph nodes can be removed and examined to assess the stage of metastatic spread
        
        Breast cancer
        
        tumour metastases from the breast are most likely to spread to the axillary nodes
        
        axilla/armpit
        
        Bronchitis
        
        tracheal lymph nodes
        
        can enlarge due to infection
        
        cervical lymph nodes
        
        may be visible and palpable as bumps on the neck
        
        Genital herpes
        
        superficial inguinal nodes
        
        groin region
        
        visibly and palpably enlarge due to the infection
        
        Testicular cancer
        
        metastatic spread is to the lateral aortic nodes
        
        para aortic nodes
- - - - Formed from embryonic mesoderm
      - Mesothelium
        
        simple squamous epithelium + thin layer of connective tissue with blood vessels
      - Secrete small amounts of serous fluid to reduce friction between organs
      - Inner visceral layer, outer parietal layer
      - Pleura
        
        parietal pleura lines thoracic cavity
        
        visceral pleura covers the lungs
      - Pericardium
        
        covers and surrounds the heart
      - Peritoneum
        
        covers and surrounds many abdominal and pelvic organs
      - Serous membranes line the inside of the body wall and cover many organs
    - - ‘Real’ spaces: keep their structure when empty
        
        trachea
      - ‘Potential’ spaces: small, flattened spaces that have the potential to become much larger
        
        Serous membrane cavities
        
        pleural cavity
        
        Fascial planes
    - - Superficial fascia
        
        Deep to skin: loose connective tissue and fat
        
        Variable thickness
        
        Contains collagen, fat cells & elastic tissue
      - Deep fascia
        
        Surrounds muscles
        
        Fibrous, tough sheet
        
        Forms routes for infection spread
        
        Forms compartments
        
        can have consequences during a bleed
- - - - Chemical structure purpose: Similar structures can bind to the same receptors.
      - therapeutic use = What the drug is used for in Medicine
      - Mode of Action = What the drug does to cause the effect
    - - Drugs applied to the skin diffuses through skin, tissue and to the sensory neuron
      - Ion Channels - Action potentials are created by Sodium channels - Drugs can block to prevent action potential
      - Drug targets are molecules (often proteins), the function of which can be modulated by a drug to produce a biological effect.
      - Receptors are proteins which are embedded in the cell membrane.
    - - Chemical Name = Chemical the drug is made from
      - Generic Name = Name given to the drug universally
      - Brand name = Name given to the drug by a company
- - - - Psychology
        Social science
        Ethics
        Health promotion & population health
    - - Disease = Biomedical understanding of Disease
      - Illness = The human experience of disease
    - - Perceived susceptibility
        
        Belief of ability to have illness
      - Perceived severity
        
        Belief of how bad the illness is
      - Perceived benefits
        
        Belief of the help possible from healthcare
      - Perceived barriers
        
        Belief of things preventing healthcare helping
      - Cues to action
        
        Stimulus required to seek health care
      - Self-efficacy
        
        Belief of level of ability of themselves
    - - Makes better Medical Practitioners
      - Better patient outcomes
    - - Four key elements:
        Psychology of health & medicine
        Sociology of health & medicine
        Public health
        Ethics
      - You will be treating a person, not just a body
    - - Biomedical understands disease in purely biomedical terms
      - Biopsychosocial includes the Psychological and Social aspects in the understanding of disease
- - - - Understand the basic composition of blood and the relevance of alterations in blood cells to disease
        
        Red blood cells (RBCs)
        
        erythrocytes (>98%)
        
        Made in the bone marrow of adults
        
        Red Blood cells are biconcave discs: 6-7µm in diameter
        
        Biconcave shape maintained by the cytoskeleton
        
        large surface area to volume ratio to maximise oxygen exchange
        
        Pale pink staining cells on a routine blood film
        
        No nucleus
        
        Life span of approximately 120 days
        
        transport oxygen from lungs to peripheral tissues
        
        White blood cells (WBCs)
        
        leucocytes (<2%)
        
        5 types – divided into 2 groups
        
        Granulocytes
        
        Neutrophils
        
        4 more items...
        
        Basophils
        
        1 more item...
        
        Eosinophils
        
        2 more items...
        
        Mononuclear leucocytes
        
        Lymphocytes
        
        2 more items...
        
        Monocytes
        
        3 more items...
        
        main function is outside the vessels. Destroy infecting organisms and remove dead and damaged tissue
        
        Platelets
        
        thrombocytes, PLTs (0.002%)
        
        adhere to defects in blood vessels and assist in clotting mechanism
      - Describe the components of plasma and their main functions
        
        Fluid-containing proteins (8%)
        
        Albumin
        
        Colloid osmotic pressure (oncotic pressure)
        
        Transporter
        
        Produced in liver
        
        Hypoalbuminemia (low)
        
        Hyperalbuminemia (high)
        
        Marker of inflammation
        
        Fibrinogen
        
        broken down to fibrin by the enzyme thrombin to form clots
        
        solutes (1%)
        
        lipids (0.5%)
        
        molecular oxygen
        
        nitrogen
        
        CO2
        
        Removal of clotting proteins = serum
      - Describe the structure and main functions of erythrocytes
      - Describe the structure and functions of the white blood cells
      - Describe the structure and function of platelets
      - Explain the clinical relevance of basic full blood counts and haematological measurements
      - Define anaemia and the pathological circumstances that may lead to it
      - Explain how anaemia can be diagnosed
      - Describe the subject matter of pathology
      - Define common pathological terms
      - Describe how cells respond to alterations in their environment
    - - Cells suspended in a fluid medium called plasma
        
        45% Formed elements
        
        55% plasma
      - Vehicle for transport
        
        gases
        
        nutrients
        
        cells
        
        hormones
        
        antibodies
        
        metabolites
      - 5-6L altogether
      - Has a role in maintaining body temperature
- - - - Genetic - Family history of High Cholesterol/early age stroke & Heart disease
      - Acquired - High Fat, High Cholesterol DIet
    - - Biosynthetic Pathways
        
        Build
    - - Breaking down pathways
    - - Move through system like someone on the tube - May change paths at junctions
    - - Low density
      - Leaks
      - High levels - Genetic or Aquired?
        
        Increased cholesterol
    - - Cleans up after the LDL
    - - Can cause a build up of - In the brain
      - Cause ADHD/Autism Symptoms
  - - - Essential Compounds
        
        Vitamins
        
        Vital Amines
        
        Fat soluble - A, D, E, K
        
        Water Soluble - B-complex, C
        
        Functional Classifications:
        
        Hormone precursors
        
        Minerals
        
        Essential Amino Acids
        
        Essential Fatty Acids
        
        Other essential nutrients including ions etc
        
        NO essential Carbs
        
        Synthesized by other compounds
        
        Must remain within an individual specific range - Too much or too little is bad
      - Energy Yielding Compounds
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        Fats
        
        Proteins
    - - Increase of decrease of specific metabolites can identify where the issue may be
    - - Be able to link lab reports to signs and symptoms and know what the next step is
      - Be able to link lab reports to pathology and treatments
      - Recognise how a specific mutation causes signs & symptoms
      - Describe how a drug blocks a disease/pathway
      - Describe how a drug causes/relieves signs and symptoms
- - - - Statistical = Mean + 3 SD
        
        Towards either extreme - Higher chance of abnormality
        
        NOT abnormal
      - Cultural Norms
      - Socio-economic Expectations