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A2 History - Theme 2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Women: First President not to have a woman in cabinet. Set up presidential commission on the status of women which argued that childcare, poverty, healthcare and education were more important than equal rights.1963 an Equal Pay Act was passed though it did not cover all women and could not be enforced legally.
      - Environment: First President to take environmental issues seriously and set up an advisory on pesticides. Introduced the Clean Air Act 1963 which limited pollution from factories and cars. LBJ continued this.
      - Health and education: 1961 proposal for education was passed by Senate but didn't make it through house. Bill proposed to give federal money to school for scholarships and buildings in poorer states. Did get 1963 Higher Education Facilities Act passed which gave $145 million in grants to graduate schools in science, language and engineering.
  - - - Education: He believed that public education is primarily a state and local responsibility. Federal government helps but to assure children with special needs receive equal opportunity.
        He proposed 4 major efforts in 1977:
        
        Consolidation of 24 categorial programmes under the Financial Assistance fr Elementary and Secondary Education Act.
        
        Provision of aid to school districts facing problems to eliminate discrimination.
        
        Reform of the Impact Aid Programme.
        
        Full funding for basic educational opportunity.
      - Welfare: Pressed Congress to pass legislation to consolidate various Federal aid programmes into single block grants. Twice proposed legislation to reform the food stamp programme by concentrating benefits on those in need and correcting abuses and inequities.
        Called on Congress for legislation to improve effectiveness of the work incentive and Aid to Families with Department of Children welfare programmes.
    - - Supported and signed: Equal Credit Opportunity Act 1974, prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex and marital status in the granting of consumer credit. Education Amendments 1974, includes Women's Education Equality Act, providing funds for the development of textbooks to advance equality. Military Procurement Bill 1975, permits women to be eligible for appointment and admission to the service academies for classes entering the calendar year 1976.
  - - - Johnson and Vietnam: Kennedy's legacy meant Johnson had little choice but to stay in the war. He retained both McNamara and Dean Rusk so no new opinion on the war emerged. Newly appointed General Minh was proving to be successful.
    - - 1971: Nixon tests Vietnamisation. Does not work and the communist North Vietnamese forces easily won. US provided tactical advice and aerial support but did not enter Loas to help. Offensive generated more protests in the US. USSR and Chins encouraged North Vietnam to find peace but they refused.
        
        1972: Communists staged the Spring Offensive and the South Vietnamese crumbled. Congress threatened to cut off money again. Polls show 'silent majority' middle-class America still agree with Nixon. 74% still agree it is important that Vietnam does not fall to communists.
        October: Kissinger announces peace is at hand. Nixon backs out. Nixon bonds and mines Haiphong again in December - causes international uproar as he already promised to end the war.
        
        The Paris Peace Accords January 1973: North Vietnamese forces allowed to stay in South Vietnam but no more fighting. South Vietnam could continue to exist and Thieu (South Vietnam leader) remained in power. Committee of National Reconciliation would contain communists. Nixon secretly promises billions for reconstruction.
        
        Results: 56,000 American soldiers died, 300,000 wounded, numbers vary about Vietnamese soldiers, some say 300,000 and others say 900,000. Bitter, lasting impact on the presidencies of both Johnson and Nixon. Damaged the international image of the US.
    - - Doves vs Hawks: War highlighted a divide between Republicans who supported the war effort (hawks) and those who opposed it (doves). Division not strictly alone party lines, but Republicans had prominent figures on both sides.
        
        Democratic party: Though Nixon was Republican, his presidency overlapped with the Vietnam war and had implications for the Democratic Party's response to the conflict. Impact on Democrats was that it deeply divided the party, leading to significant shifts in it's positions and internal dynamics.
    - - Kennedy and Johnson under pressure not to appear to be giving into aggression. Was increasing concern by Democrats about the war and the way it was being waged. Deeply split the Democratic party. Alienated many blue-collar Democrats, whom became political independents or Republicans. Former party supporters viewed the party as dominated by it's anti-war faction, weak in the area of foreign policy, and uncertain about America's proper role in the world.
      - War drew Democrats away from a key element in their policies, as resources for the Great Society was diverted. Also prevented the reforms attracting many previous and potential supporters who were alienated by the war. Protest movements and the activities of demonstrators a the New Left brought together many conservatives. Disapproval of unpatriotic criticism was combined with concerns about the Great Society extension of federal power and the concessions to Civil Rights.
      - Given Nixon's efforts to end the war, it might be argued that other factors were more significant, though Nixon was portrayed as having to deal with mismanagement of the war by Johnson.War put Johnson under strain as he feared the revival of attacks on the Democrats in the 1950''s for losing China and he also feared that conservative attacks on foreign policy might underline his all-important domestic agenda. Nixon managed to avoid doing harm to party unit by pulling out and instead Watergate and personal feeling became the key issue.
- - - - During the 1980's US saw growing trade deficit. 1984 nation's trade deficit grew to $123.3 billion. Some benefits to the US economy as cheap foreign goods which kept inflation down. Trade deficit did help to slow and reverse the spiral of rising prices of the late 1970's. Inflation in the US was also kept below 4% early 1980's.
        Trade deficit also reflected the pain suffered by American businesses that had been unable to bring their prices down far enough to meet the foreign competition. To survive, some had to move factories overseas, at the cost of American jobs. Most challenges to the US economy came from rapidly growing economies in Asia. 'Corporate raiders' in the US bought various corporations whose stock prices were depressed and the reconstructed them, either by selling off some of their operation or by dismantling them. In some cases, companies spent large sums to buy up their own stock or pay off raiders. Arguments whether raiders were destroying good companies or made a meaningful contribution to the economy, by taking over poorly managed companies and making them profitable.
  - - - Paul Volcker, appointed chairman of the Federal reserve in 1979, prioritised fighting inflation and believed that inflation was the primary concern for the economy. Volcker shifted Federal policy to aggressively target the money supply rather than interest rates to combat inflation. New policy aimed to sign the Fed's commitment to low inflation and manage inflationary expectations. Recession worsened due to high interest rates, affecting borrowing-dependent sectors like manufacturing and construction. Volcker maintained his focus and paid off, inflation fell to 5% and long run interest rates declined October 1982. Unemployment decreased to 8%. Commitment to price stability helped prevent a return to double digit inflation of the 1970's.
      - 1980's: Americans enjoyed fundamental changes in their standard of living. One major transformation was the new role of television. Cable television, although available in the 1970's, became standard for most American households.
        
        New media: Sports-minded Americans could watch ESPN network 24 hours a day. Nickelodeon catered to the children of the baby boomer with youth-centred daily programming, and to the boomers themselves by broadcasting returns of classic sitcoms. Americans could catch up with the news at any time by watching CNN.
        MTV: Brought revolution to the music industry.
        VCR: Allowed Americans to record tv shows and watch them according to their own schedule.
        Apple: Allowed management of personal finance, quick word processing, and desktop publishing from home. Businesses could manage payroll, mailing lists and inventories from one machine.
  - - - The Second Twin: Current account is a measure of a country's trade and financial transactions with the rest of the world. Includes the difference between the value of it's exports of goods and services and it's imports, as well as new payment on foreign investments and other transfers from abroad. Country with a current account deficit is spending more overseas than it is taking in. Country must continually borrow money to make up the shortfall, and interest must be paid to service that debt. Developing countries can leave them exposed to international investors and markets. Sustained deficit of exports vs import may indicate a country has lost it's competitiveness.
        
        Twin deficit hypothesis: Large budget deficit can be correlated to a large current account deficit. Macroeconomic theory, logic being that government tax cuts, which reduce revenue and increase the deficit, result in increased consumption as taxpayers spend their newfound money. The increased spending reduces the national savings rate, causing the nation to increase the amount it borrows from abroad.
        When a nation runs out of money to fund its fiscal spending, it often turns to foreign investors as a source of borrowing. At the same time, the nation is borrowing them abroad, its citizens often using borrowing money to purchase imported goods.
- - - - Conservation: Jimmy Carter donned a sweater. February 2 1977, asked consumers to reduce fuel consumption.
        Businesses and environmental advocates joined Carter in issuing advice on cutting back and the fostering of new products.
        1961 Kennedy expanded the US space programme and committed the nation to the ambitious goal of landing a man on the moon.
        
        Kennedy's challenge: He understood the need to restore America's confidence and intended not to match the Soviets. May 25th 1961 he delivered a message asking for an $7 billion to $9 billion over the next 5 years. Settled upon this dramatic goal as a means of focusing and mobilising the nation's lagging space efforts.
  - - - Generated a resurgence of European industrialisation andbrough extensive investment into the region. Stimulant to the US economy markets for American goods. Marshall Plan provided markets for American goods, reliable trading partners, and supported the development of stable democratic governments in western Europe.
    - - Prosperity: Economy grew 37% in the 50's. Inflation was minimal as Eisenhower balanced the budget. Unemployment 4.5%. GI bill - returning veterans given affordable college education among other benefits. Cheap oil from US wells, advances in science and tech improved productivity.
      - Social Security extended to cover more people. Federal money investing into Interstate Highway. Goal was to achieve a balanced federal budget. Recession through 1958-59 - Eisenhower allowed federal deficit to grow and was back to surplus by 1960. Used military experience to deny the calls for an increase to defence spending.
      - Rise of consumerism: 1950's America made up 6% of the global population, consumed 30% of the world's goods. New concept of use and throw away. Consumerism was derived by advertising, designed to make people want more, better, newer things.
  - - - Newsreel mills were all built overseas = American people and federal government missed out. 1963 elections approaching he announced to cut taxes. Wanted to make the range from 20%-91% to 14%-65%. Also proposed to reduce corporate tax from 52% to 47%. Economic growth expanded in 1963 even though Republicans and conservative Democrats insisted reduced taxes without corresponding spending cuts was unacceptable. Kennedy disagreed. Polls showed over 60% of Americans agreed with tax cuts.
        
        Kennedy's policies wearing the US economy over the 1960's: Time of great change with new nations emerging. Establishing countries becoming powerhouses that could rival the US. Economic relationships more important than military right. JFK sought to accelerate economic growth by increasing government spending and cutting taxes. Pressed for medical help for the elderly, aid for inner cities and increased funding for education. He did not have time to enact all these.
- - - - Kent State and Jackson State: Black Student Organisation and the Yippies were active on Kent State campus. Yippie leader Jerry Rubin told the students 'first part of the yippie programme is to kill your parents'. Kent State students demanded the admission of more Black students and the abolition of Reserve Officer Training Corps and protesting the invasion of Cambodia. After students rioted, around 2,000 people gathered on the campus on 4th May 1970. National Guard panicked and shot 4 students dead and would 11 others.
- - - - Significance: First time major civil rights leaders collaborated. March was televised around the world. NYT described congress as 'unmoved'.
    - - SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) organised communities across the South to develop local civil rights groups to campaign for greater equality. SNCC members, both white and place, faced considerable white opposition. Several murdered. When SNCC members organiser couldn't register black voters through normal methods, they encouraged African Americans in Mississippi to form the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP). At the Democratic National Convention 1964 both official Democratic Party and MFDP demanded representation from Mississippi. LBJ and his aides managed a compromise with 2 delegates allowed from MFDP. Official state part left in protest.
      - SNCC and the problems in Mississippi: By 1960 only 5.2% of Mississippi blacks could vote. Southern average was over 30%. White voter registers set impossible questions and opened offices at inconvenient hours to stop blacks registering to vote. Although 1/2 of Mississippians were black, there had been no black official since 1877. Blacks were politically powerless. 70% of Mississippi blacks were illiterate.
      - Problems in Mississippi: With only 6 black doctors, a black baby was twice as likely to die compared to a white baby. 1/2 million black Mississippians migrated North to escape.
      - SNCC activities and achievements in Mississippi: Worked at community level, establishing freedom schools and educating would-be voters. The local, poorer black population rather than the middle class who responded to the SNCC. November 1963, the SNCC organised the 'freedom vote' a mock election to encourage black voters to register. In Freedom Summer, predominantly white northern volunteers poured into Mississippi to help, 3 young activists were murdered by segregationists.
    - - About half of Selma's 29,000 population was black. Blacks had segregated schools, buses, churches, restaurants, playgrounds etc. Used different library and swimming pools. Could only have certain jobs and houses. In white neighbourhoods the streets were paved and in black neighbourhoods they had first roads. Average income of a white family was 4 times that of a black family. Despite SNCC campaign, only 23 blacks were registered to vote.
      - What happened: King led would-be voters to register at Selma Country Court, no registrations happened. Trooper shot a black youth who was trying to shield his mother from being beaten. Whites threw venomous snakes at blacks trying to register. The SCLC and SNCC organised a march from Selma to Montgomery to publicise the need for a Voting Rights Act. 80 Alabama whites joined the march. State troopers attacked the marchers with clubs and tear gas. Became Bloody Sunday.
      - LBJ impact on the South: Education acts sped up desegregation. Civil Rights legislation paved the way for a richer black middle class. War on poverty decreased black unemployment. % of blacks living below poverty line was down 25%.
        
        Impact on the South: By 1966 only 4 southern states had fewer than 50% of their eligible black voters registered. By 1980 the portion of black voters registered was 7% less than whites.
  - - - Why was AIM formed: Response to high unemployment, slum housing, racism was common to other civil rights movements. Also protest about broken treaty rights and lost tribal land. Attempt to develop knowledge about native Americans by the K-12 Heart of the Earth Survival School in 1971 could be seen as significant in developing the movement.
      - Dennis Banks: Prominent native American activities and co founder of AIM in 1968. Organised protests and campaigns to bring attention to the rights and issues of native Americans. Banks were instrumental in 1973 occupation of Wounded Knee, standoff between AIM activists and the US government.He focused on fighting for indigenous sovereignty, treaty rights, and cultural revitalisation, working to address social and political inequalities faced by Native Americans.
      - George Mitchell: June 14 1936 - June 1 2015. Boarding schools friend of Dennis Banks, George Mitchell is credited as a cofounder of the AIM. Alongside Banks and Clyde Bellecourt, Mitchell garnered native support for the fledging movement in the summer of 1968. Mitchell was the Active Director of the Indian American Youth Council in Minneapolis. Involved in the resistance movement's earliest activism, attempted to address police brutality in Minneapolis.
      - Vernon and Clyde Bellecourt: Anishaable activists and predominant leaders in the American Indian Movement. Vernon served as the national director of AIM and played a crucial role in organising protests and campaigns to raise awareness about indigenous rights and issues.
        Clyde was a co-founder of AIM and held leadership positions within the organisation.
        Both brothers were involved in AIM initiatives. Dedicated their lives to raising awareness about the challenged faced by native communities and promoting activism for native American rights and self-determination.
      - AIM protests: Participated in the occupation of Alcatraz island from 1969 to 1971. 1972, AIM members marched on Washington DC to protest treaty violation. AIM organised takeover of Wounded Knee in 1973. Mid 1970's AIM focused on preventing resource exploitation of Indian lands by the federal government. Internal conflicts and the imprisonment of many leaders led to the disbandment of AIM's national leadership in 1978.
      - Trial of broken treaties: 1972: Cross-country protest march organised by AIM, response to the ongoing violation of native American treaties and the neglect of tribal sovereignty by the US government. March initiated as a means to draw attention to the numerous broken treaties between native American tribes and the US government. Native Americans had experienced a long history of injustices, land seizures and cultural suppression. Highlights treaty violations, push for the recognition of tribal sovereignty, sought to present a unified voice for native American rights.
        
        Occupation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs: Reached Washington DC and AIM with supporters occupied the headquarters of the BIA on November 3rd 1972. Occupation lasted several days and resulted in damage to the building.
        Demands: 20-point list of commands, including the recognition of native American sovereignty, restoration of treaty rights, improved healthcare and education, and greater tribal control over resources and lands.
        Outcomes: Brought to attention to the struggles and grievances of native American communities. Not all demands were met, but the protest led to increased dialogue between native American activists and government officials.
        
        The Longest Walk 1978: draw attention to American Indian concerns. Several hundred American Indian activists and supporters marched for 5 months from San Francisco to Washington DC to protest threats to tribal lands and water rights. Intended to symbolise the forced removal of American Indians from their homelands and to draw attention to the continuing problems of Indian people and their communities. Intended to expose and challenge the backlash movement against Indian treaty rights that was gaining strength around the country and Congress.
        
        Nixon and Native Americans: Enacting the Menominee Restoration Act - restoring the recognition of the previously terminated tribe in 1973. Signing the Indian Healthcare Act, laid the groundwork for the signing of the Indian self-determination Act, increasing budget of the Bureau of Indian Affairs by 214%, establishing the first special office on Indian Water Rights, passing the Indian Financing Act of 1974, bill supporting tribal commercial development.
    - - The Chicano Civil Rights Movement: The African American civil rights movement aimed to include all Americans of colour in the struggle for equality. Hispanic Americans, inspired by leaders like MLK began organising their own fight for equality. Puerto Ricans in Philadelphia, Chicago and NYC held marches to protest unequal treatment. Mexican Americans in the Southwest initiated the Chicano Civil Rights Movement. Mexican Americans often faced suspicion regarding their American identity, regardless of their family's long history in the US.
  - - - Pushback: Professional schools changed their admission criteria for African American applicants. 1971, Supreme Court ruled that children to be bussed to schools to achieve racial balance. Griggs vs Duke Power Company Supreme Court decision ordered that all employers had to consider race when making hiring decisions. Late 1970's, courts began to strike down affirmative action programmes that were designed to give minorities an opportunity to compete for federal contracts. Bekke case 1978 the Court decided against quotas for minorities but accepted ethnic background could be a factor in recruiting students.
        
        Griggs vs Duke Power Company 1971: Willie Griggs filed a class action, on behalf of several fellow African-American employees, against his employer Duke Power Company. Griggs challenged Duke's 'inside' transfer policy, requiring employees who want to work in all but the company's lowest paying labour department to register a minimum score on two seperate aptitude tests in addition to having high school education. Griggs claimed that Duke;s policy discriminated against African-American employees in violation of the Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964. Appeal from a district court's dismissal of the claim, the Court of Appeals found no discriminatory practices.