John Locke
Economy
state policy should respect the natural right to private property
state should arbitrate between individuals competing for trade and resources
State
state is there to improve any issues with the natural society so it should be as limited as possible
social contract: if the state protects natural rights then humans will follow the law, if the state fails to protect rights then humans should overthrow the state and if humans fail to follow the law then the state has the right to revoke natural rights
Human Nature
humans have natural liberties: life, liberty, happiness
humans are guided by rationality
Society
a society is good as long as it follows the natural society as much as possible
prior to the state, there was a natural society which preserved mankind's interests
J.S. Mill
Society
Human Nature
Economy
State
they promote tolerance in the state
human nature is not fixed and can improve
believes in self actualisation and developmental individualism
ideals and pleasures can be cultivated in people
those who are illiterate and uneducated should not be allowed to vote
harm principle: the notion that an individual's actions should always be tolerated by either the state or other individuals unless these actions 'harm' or impinge on the freedom of others in society (eg. violent actions) ie. other regarding actions
laissez-faire capitalism was vital to progress, individual enterprise and initiative
feared that a democratic state had the potential to create a 'tyranny of the majority' where the principle of government by consent would be compromised if the wishes of some individual citizens were overwhelmed by the wishes of most individual citizens
Mary Wollstonecraft
Human Nature
reason should govern our rational instincts and passions
equality feminism: women have the same capability of using reason as men
society prevents women from being able to self-actualise
Society
society should seek to promote better qualities in women
no one person should dominated by another; wives shouldn't be subservient to their husbands – a state that controls its subjects is similar to a husband controlling his wife
compared the oppression faced by women to slavery
wanted a society based on liberty and equality
society prevents women from being able to self-actualise
society doesn't give women the opportunity to develop their intelligence, stunting their growth as individuals
female equality is central to democracy and so society is a collaborative process
Economy
capitalist
believes that economic success can only happen if women play a greater role
State
the educational system should provide provide women with the same rights as men
disagrees with hereditary power and arbitrary states
pro-democracy
universal education for people to develop individually, allowing them to reach their full potential
John Rawls
Society
Economy
State
Human Nature
foundational equality requires both formal equality but also greater social and economic equality
individuals want liberty and self-fulfilment – it is justified that this could cause inequality if the poor still benefitted
human nature is rational and empathetic and thus would want a society with reduced inequality under the 'veil of ignorance'
fundamental commitment to self-actualisation and liberty
the state should be 'enabling' and support a redistribution of wealth
progressive taxation and extensive public spending
the state should be constitutional and act with the consent of the people
more state ownership
property owning democracy: individuals must possess productive resources in order to enable fair societal participation and equal political influence
progressive taxation – more income, higher tax
Betty Friedan
Human Nature
all individuals should be free to seek control over their own lives and the full realisation of their potential
State
Economy
Society
gender is a serious hindrance to all individuals who are female
illiberal attitudes in society, rather than any supposed innate female human traits, condemned most women to underachievement
illiberal attitudes were nurtured and transmitted through cultural channels such as schools, church, the media, mainstream literature, theatre, cinema and marketing
significant change was possible through legal equality
endorsed the US constitution but advocated reform in line with the theory of liberal constitutionalism
free market capitalism should be an ally of female emanicpation
women should be able to work all jobs, not just socially accepted ones
Karl Marx and Freidrich Engels
State
Human Nature
Society
Economy
humans have been corrupted by capitalism – it has made humans individualistic and selfish
socialism will lead to the redefinement and improvement of human nature
capitalism promotes exploitation, alienation and oppression
capitalism must disappear before socialism, and then communism, could be established
capitalism is at odds with the key socialist principles of fraternity, solidarity and equality
anything in society is a product of the economic condition of the time
society is defined by its class divisions → there is massive inequality under capitalism
there should be no state in society
before this, the proletariat will create a strong centralised state called dictatorship of the proletariat
the state is promoting the interests of the bourgeoisie and allows the explanations of workers – the state is an instrument of the bourgeoisie
Rosa Luxemburg
Human Nature
fraternity and altruism still flourished in working class communities despite the punishing nature of capitalism
Economy
capitalism is more resilient than Marx believed
capitalism promoted exploitation and was at odds with humanity's natural, fraternal instincts
State
'freedom is how free your opponent is'
advocated the immediate construction of a new democracy underpinned by common ownership, open debate and elections after revolution
Society
the only means by which a genuine socialist society could ever emerge was via a revolution based on class consciounsess
Anthony Crosland
Society
Anthony Giddens
Human Nature
Thomas Hobbes
Human Nature
Edmund Burke
Human Nature
Michael Oakeshott
Society
Ayn Rand
Human Nature
Robert Nozick
Human Nature
the state is a tool of class oppression and needs to be overthrown by revolution
the state is not as strong as Lenin believed
capitalism leads to economic imperialism -→ globalisation through expanding markets
capitalism is reliant on finite resources - workers and fossil fuels - thus the economic system needs to expand as they must obtain these resources from other countries, leading to imperialism
socialism's ultimate objective is equality
economic growth has broken down Marx's idea of class conflict
State
large state and significant public spending
equality of opportunity through comprehensive education
the state should try to reduce income inequalities
Economy
Keynesian economics could lead to greater equality
expansion of state welfare and public spending enables progress towards equality - managed capitalism
mixed economy of private enterprise and ownership alongside public spending and renationalised utilities
humans yearn for solidarity and fellowship
humans want to work in communities - we need to find new ways to build fraternal bonds
Society
Blair: "Slowly but surely the old establishment is being replaced by a new, larger, more meritocratic middle class"
post-Fordist society means that the Third Way is more important as it ensures less alienation
Economy
State
has to be more proactive by investing in infrastructure and education
capitalism can empower individuals economically
have to acknowledge the power of free markets due to globalisation - Keynesian economics is obsolete
humans want economic freedom
State
human life is 'nasty, brutish and short'
humans are self seeking, power grabbing and irrational
the state is autocratic, repressive and large - a Leviathan state
social contract - individuals follow the state and in return the state provides them safety
the state's role is to enforce law and order
Society
the state predates society
society is anarchical without a state
`Economy
the economy should be heavily regulated to avoid conflict
heavily regulated free market
humans are falliable
humans are naturally communal and gain support/comfort from small communities or 'little platoons' - your place in society is the one you were born into
sceptical of ideas of individualism and believes in duty
State
doesn't believe in absolute monarchy, but the constitutional monarchy - the king should be restrained by a parliament elected by the few
sceptical of the excesses of democracy
Economy
free markets but with state intervention
protectionism (eg. tariffs and duties) to protect national producers against the forces of a globalised free market
capitalist
Society
society is more like a plant than a machine - change should be cautious and organic
the ruling classes have an obligation to govern in the interests of all - noblesse oblige - they have to act in a paternalistic way
State
its role is to maintain order and improve people's lives
pragmatic, not ideological
guided by reason rather than philosophy
want neither a small state not a big state - moderately sized welfare state
Economy
capitalist
Keynesian post-war economy
humans should not seek to radically change society
optimistic view of how society currently is - any attempts to make it better (eg. socialism) are doomed to fail
Human Nature
humans are imperfect and fallible but not terrible and immoral - human nature is not fundamentally evil/chaotic but we are flawed
humans seek 'rational self fulfilment' and 'self realisation'
humans are selfish but can rationally seek solutions to issues
Society
atomised: society is defined by a million autonomous individuals
rejects the idea of 'little platoons'
society doesn't exist in any practical way, but it is a collection on loose individuals
State
Economy
privatisation
deregulation
capitalism
less government spending
small state is a strong state
if the state is too involved, it cannot deal with the fundamentals as well
liberty is impossible without order and security - only a small state could provide this
focus on law and order
State
Economy
Society
humans want freedom and individualism
taxation is theft - anti-utilitarian
police force to arbitrate disputes → small state
each community should be free to practice their own moral code
doesn't believe in the social contract theory
libertarianism - state should stay out of our social life and the economy
best form of society is one consisting of a variety of 'little platoons'
it is wrong to steal people's money even if it is for the greater good
anything that requires state intervention can be privatised
we need self sufficient communities which promote indiividual freedom
optimistic view of human nature
Charlotte Perkins Gilman
Economy
Human Nature
Society
State
Simone de Beauvoir
Human Nature
State
Society
bell hooks
State
Economy
Human Nature
Society
Sheila Rowbotham
Human Nature
Economy
State
Society
Kate Millett
State
Society
Human Nature
Economy
humans are all fundamentally equal
focus on the androgynous ideal
differences between men and women are socialised, not inherent - 'one is not born, but becomes a woman'
wanted to destroy patriarchal institutions
the state should embark on a wide ranging legislative agenda to remove barriers that women face in society
society should be based upon the principle of equality
women are conditioned into taking a passive role in life - society endoctrinates women to think a certain way
wanted to abolish the family unit as it is the main thing that sustains the oppression of women
collectivism and cooperation are female qualities
men and women are fundamentally equal and society creates gender roles
advocates for the androgynous ideal
believed that women should have a wider role in society
reappraisal of gender roles and jobs - and this is only possible under socialism
socialism allows men and women to exist in an egalitarian society
large role in the economy to support women
the state should sponsor what happens in the home
the state should support communal child-rearing
economic interdependence could provide women freedom
the state should play a large role in the economy
the state will be required to make the necessary changes after the revolution
the state should promote feminism and eliminate the concept of the family
men are unable to understand the nature of female oppression
women's oppression is a result of both economic and cultural forces
a dual response to tackle both the private and public sphere is needed to achieve liberation - believes that 'personal is political'
believed that a radical change in the 'cultural conditioning' of humanity was needed - a 'revolution within a revolution'
believed in the idea of the triple shift
capitalism oppresses both the working classes and women
young girls are socialised into subordinance at a young age
family is the patriarchy's key institution and a system of oppression
the patriarchy exists in culture through the portrayal of women in art and literature
undoing the traditional family unit is key to the sexual revolution
the state is an institution of patriarchy and this manifests itself in policies that harm women
a sexual revolution is needed to change the state
more state involvement is needed after the revolution to eliminate patriarchal ideas
education is needed to dismantle patriarchal beliefs
women should own a larger proportion of the wealth in society
human nature is not fixed, but malleable - boys and girls are socialised into gender stereotypes; women are socalised into oppression
women of colour find themselves in a double bind - they are marginalised in the feminist movement and marginalised by the patriarchy
being a woman is not a fixed, rigid category
believes in solidarity between women - they should be united with an understanding of differences
the state has been an instrument of oppression
there should be education to reform societal socialisation
there should be an international focus - intersectionality should expand beyond borders
liberation of women with the economy - she wants reform to an economic system that caters to women