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12 Biology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Biogeochemical cycles
        
        The Water Cycle
        
        1. Evaporation: Solar energy powers evaporation
        
        2. Condensation: Water vapor combines with cool air causing condensation
        
        3. Precipitation: Large volumes of water fall
        
        4. Distribution: water flows to waterways or is absorbed into the soil
        
        5. Transpiration: plants absorb water and return it to the atmosphere
        
        The Carbon Cycle
        
        1. Existence: Carbon exists in the atmosphere
        
        2. Absorption: Plants absorb CO2 through photosynthesis
        
        3. Consumption: stored carbon can either be consumed, respired or excreted
        
        4. Recycling: decomposed plants are then deconstructed by decomposers, recycling bioproducts
        
        5. Fossil fuels: burning fossil fuels released more CO2 into the atmosphere
        
        The Nitrogen Cycle
        
        1. Existence: Nitrogen exists as a gas in the atmosphere (N2)
        
        2. Ammonification: Nitrogen enters the soil through a fixing process performed by bacteria this forms ammonia
        
        3. Plant absorption:Ammonia is then absorbed by plants or converted into nitrates
        
        4. Organism consumption: animals that eat the plants then absorb nitrogen
        
        5. Excretion: Nitrogen leaves organisms as waste and is stored in amino acids
      - Energy Flow
        
        Energy in ecosystems: converts from light to chemical energy through photosynthesis
        
        Autotrophs
        
        Obtains organic compounds by converting organic matter
        
        Known as producers
        
        Source of all food in the ecosystems
        
        Heterotrophs
        
        Obtains energy from autotrophs and other heterotrophs
        
        Reffered to as consumers
        
        Cannot make their own food
        
        Energy maps
        
        Food Chains: the path that food takes from organism to organism
        
        Food Webs: shows all the possible feeding relations in an ecosystem
        
        Ecological pyramids: graphical representation of energy flow through trophic levels, pyramid of numbers shows the number of individual organisms within each trophic level
        
        Energy Transfer: Rarely more than 6 energy transfers in any food chain, approximately 10% of energy is lost with each transfer
    - - QCAA Definition: A plant or animal that plays a unique and crucial role in the way an ecosystem functions
      - When removed, the ecosystem destabilizes or collapses collapses
      - difficult to identify as the significance of their interactions isn't realized until after they leave the ecosystem (die off or migrate)
      - Examples:
        
        The Cassowary (distributes seeds)
        
        The Great White Shark (stabilizes food webs by consuming all members)
    - - QCAA Definition: the role and space that an organism fills in an organism, including all of its interactions with the biotic and abiotic environment
      - A niche, when expressed in the community describes:
        
        how a species obtains food
        
        What relationship the animal has with other species
        
        The services it provides to the community
      - Determined by genetics, morphological and physical structure and intrinsic behaviors
      - Fundamental niche: theoretical potential use of available resources
      - Realized Niche: represents the actual usage of resources in the presence of predation and competition
      - Competitive exclusion principle: states that two species cannot simultaneously occupy the same niche in the same place for very long
        
        Eventually, the competing species will migrate, die off or change its behavior
      - Resource partitioning: the division of resources by coexisting species populations to avoid competition for resources
    - - Carrying Capacity
        
        Limiting Factors:
        
        Abiotic
        
        Space
        
        Shelter
        
        refuge from predators
        
        Nutrients
        
        Biotic
        
        Predation
        
        Food supply
        
        Disease
        
        Competition for resources
        
        Can be density dependent or density independent
        
        QCAA Definition: The size of the population that can be supported indefinitely on the availability of resources and services of that ecosystem
        
        Population growth
        
        Exponential growth (J curve): rapid growth, abundant resources, lots of reproduction
        
        Logistical growth (S curve): expected trend, stopped by limiting factors
      - Lincoln Index
        
        Population size fluctuates based on birth, death, immigration and emigration
        
        Formula: N = (b+i) - (d+e)
        
        Animal Capture Techniques
        
        Abundance = no. captured x no. recaptured / no. marked in recapture
    - - Ecological succession: The process by which a sequence of increasingly complex communities develop over time
        
        Primary Succession: communities develop on new land (no established soil)
        
        Soil depth increases
        
        Mineral content increases
        
        Soil becomes aerated
        
        Secondary Succession: A disturbance occurs in an already established ecosystem, an old ecosystem gives rise to a new one
        
        Rich soil already there
        
        dominance is already achieved
        
        Stages
        
        Pioneer stage: harsh abiotic conditions
        
        Climax stage: succession is established and the community has stabilized
        
        Sere stage: Intermediate phase, ecosystem may undergo many seres, each consequential sere will replace the previous
      - Pioneer species: organisms which first colonize a region
        
        Characteristics
        
        High photosynthesis rate
        
        High seed number
        
        J shaped growth pattern
        
        Large seed dispersal distance
        
        Examples
        
        Lichen: maintains a symbiotic relationship with photosynthetic micro fungi
        
        Moss: Needs small amounts of water
    - - Ages of the earth:
        
        Precambrian
        
        Paleozoic
        
        Mesozoic
        
        Cenozoic
        
        Dino's are extinct
        
        Mass extinction eliminates most life
        
        First invertebrates and trees
        
        First eukaryotes and multicellular organisms
      - Earths climate oscillated, evidence found in ice core
      - Warmer earth = more humidity = more vegetation
      - Oxygen: the first atmosphere of earth had little oxygen
      - Carbon Dioxide: as snow falls it traps co2, level of co2 shows the global temp for the time)
  - - - Abiotic and Biotic
        
        Biotic interactions: interactions between living things
        
        Predation, competition, symbiosis and disease
        
        Intraspecific: interactions occur between members of the same species
        
        Interspecific: interactions occur between two or more species
        
        Abiotic interactions: non-living factors that affect communities
        
        Temperature, rainfall, humidity, pH, shelter, water salinity
      - Measuring Biodiversity
        
        Genetic Diversity: variety of genes
        
        Species Diversity: variety of species
        
        Ecosystem Diversity: variety of ecosystems in a given place
        
        Measuring methods
        
        Species Richness: the measure of the no. of species compared to the no. of individuals in the sample
        
        Species evenness: the relative abundance to the different species in an area
        
        Percentage Frequency
        
        Percentage cover
        
        Species Diversity: simpsons diversity index
      - Sampling
        
        Stratified: the study of the environment that includes an environmental gradient, a transect
        
        Random: where each member of the population is equally likely to be included (need to use random selector)
      - Classifying Ecosystems
        
        Common Australian Ecosystems
        
        Terrestrial Ecosystems (ordered based on tree density)
        
        Open Forest
        
        Woodland
        
        Closed rainforest
        
        Open Woodland
        
        Aquatic environments
        
        Marine ecosystems
        
        Fresh water ecosystems
        
        Holdridge Life Zone Classification
        
        Read the provided information about the habitat
        
        Find the location of these conditions on the triangle
      - Species
        
        Definition: A group of similar organisms whose members can interbreed with each other in their natural environment to produce offspring
        
        Morphological definition:differences in the form and structure that create species (applied to both asexual and sexual organisms)
        
        Biological definition: groups potentially interbreeding as they are reproductively isolated and produce fertile offspring
        
        Interspecific hybrids
        
        An organism that is the offspring of two genetically dissimilar parents
        
        produced through interspecific breeding
        
        Not fertile
      - Species classification
        
        Taxonomy: the study of the diversity of living organisms and their classification
        
        Animal classification
        
        Domain
        
        Kingdom
        
        Phylum
        
        Class
        
        1 more item...
- - - - DNA definition: Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule that contains genetic code
        
        Found in the nucleus, bound to proteins
        
        Unbound DNA is in the cytosol
        
        Bound DNA is in mitochondria and chloroplast
        
        Double helix structure
      - Cell types
        
        Eucaryotes
        
        Has a nucleus
        
        Has linear double stranded DNA tightly wound around histone proteins
        
        Prokaryotes
        
        Simpler than eukaryotes
        
        Do not have a nucleus
      - Nucleotides: The basic building block of nucleic acids
        
        Phosphate
        
        Sugar
        
        Nitrogenous Base (A-G-T-C)
        
        3 hydrogen bonds between G and C
        
        2 hydrogen bonds between A and T
      - DNA vs RNA
        
        DNA
        
        Sugar is deoxyribose
        
        double stranded
        
        thymine
        
        RNA
        
        Sugar is ribose
        
        single stranded
        
        Uracil
        
        Comes in three forms
        
        Messenger RNA (mRNA)
        
        Transfer RNA (tRNA)
        
        Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
      - DNA Replication: the copying of a cells DNA has to happen when excising cells divide
      - DNA Replication stages
        
        1. Separation: the helicase enzyme splits the DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds
        
        2. Initiation: the split DNA form a replication fork and replication bubble
        
        3. Elongation: Primase enzyme attaches to the split strand and forms a small piece of RNA called primer
        
        4. Construction: DNA polymerase enzyme bonds to the primer and makes new strand of DNA
    - - Protein synthesis: the process of making proteins with a cell
        
        Coding DNA
        
        DNA that is translated and transcribed into proteins
        
        Gene regulation: the process of regulating protein production by controlling gene activity
        
        Non-coding DNA
        
        Components of an organism's DNA that do not encode protein sequences.
        
        Telomeres: the ends of chromosomes
        
        protects the genetic material, acts as protective caps
        
        Centromeres: the part of the chromosome that attaches to the spindle fibers
        
        allows proteins to bind to DNA
        
        Introns: sections of DNA that are transcribed but are removed from mRNA before translation
        
        Functional RNA: any type of RNA that isn't messenger RNA
        
        tRNA
        
        rRNA
        
        Steps
        
        1. Transcription
        
        DNA helicase separates coding from non-coding strand
        
        RNA polymerase binds to non-coding strand to make mRNA strand
        
        Once mRNA is produced, DNA reattaches
        
        2. Post transcription modification
        
        Introns are replaced by extrons
        
        Many A bases
        
        Mature mRNA is formed
        
        3. Translation
        
        mRNA enters the cytoplasm
        
        mRNA bonds with ribosomes (rRNA) to start translation
        
        Start codon is AUG
        
        tRNA brings amino acids to ribosome, forming the protein
        
        Amino acids are bonded with peptide bond until stop codon is reached
        
        Poly peptide chain is checked and sent to the ER
      - Transcription factors and Morphology
        
        Morphology: The study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features. This includes aspects of the outward appearance, i.e. external morphology, as well as the form and structure of internal parts like bones and organs, i.e. internal morphology.
        
        Cell differentiation
        
        Gene regulation can enable the determination of the sex of an organism during embryonic development
        
        Y chromosome determines sex
        
        SRY gene
        
        Region on the Y chromosome
        
        Acts as a transcription factor that affects other transcription factors that are responsible for converting undifferentiated cells into specialised cells
        
        HOX transcription factor
        
        Homeotic genes: regulate the differentiation of different anatomical structures
        
        anatomical structures: body parts of an organism
        
        Homeobox genes control body plan of an organism (head to tail axis)
        
        Controls what genes are switched on to develop the plan, ensures correct structures are built in the right place
        
        HOX gene is highly conserved
        
        there is a high genetic similarity in these genes across animal species
        
        e.g. fruit flies and humans
    - - Cell division
        
        Diploid cells
        
        46 chromosomes
        
        Contains two complete (23) sets of chromosomes, one from mother, one from father
        
        2n
        
        Haploid cells
        
        Sex cells
        
        contain 23 chromosomes
        
        when egg and sperm combine they make 1 diploid cell with 46 chromosomes
        
        n
        
        Types of cell division
        
        Mitosis
        
        Growth and repair purpose
        
        Yields daughter cells that have the same number and type of chromosomes as the parent cell (2n)
        
        Stages
        
        Prophase: chromosome replication occurs, nuclear envelope breaks down
        
        Metaphase: Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell, spindle fibers attach to chromosomes
        
        Anaphase: spindle fibers contract, pulling chromosomes towards centrioles
        
        Telophase: New nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes
        
        Cytokinesis: The cell divides into two separate, identical daughter cells
        
        Meiosis
        
        Produces gametes, haploid cells with one set of each chromosome
        
        Two rounds of division occur to produce daughter cells that have half the genetic material
        
        Stage 1
        
        Prophase: chromosome replication occurs, nuclear envelope breaks down
        
        Metaphase: Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell, spindle fibers attach to chromosomes
        
        Anaphase: spindle fibers contract, pulling chromosomes towards centrioles
        
        Telophase: New nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes
        
        Cytokinesis: The cell divides into two separate, identical daughter cells
        
        Stage 2
        
        Metaphase: Chromosomes line up at the center of the cell
        
        Prophase: chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope breaks down, spindle fibers form
        
        Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite sides of the cell
        
        Telophase: New nuclear envelopes form around the chromatids
        
        Cytokinesis: The cells divide into 4 daughter cells with half the DNA ready for fertilization
      - Gametogenesis: the series of miotic and meiotic divisions that occur in the gonads, forming gametes
        
        Spermatogenesis: the formation of sperm cells in the testes
        
        Initially makes diploid cells: Primary spermocyte, secondary spermocyte, spermatid
        
        Spermatides then differentiate in sperm
        
        Oogenesis: the formation of eggs in the the ovaries
        
        Initially makes Primary oocyte, secondary oocyte through meiosis 1 and 2
        
        Secondary oocyte then differentiate into and Ovum and 3 polar bodies
        
        Similarities
        
        Both start with diploid cells
        
        Both produce haploid cells
      - Genetic variation
        
        Independent assortment
        
        Occurs during anaphase 1
        
        Homologous chromosomes are randomly distributed, separating and segregating independently of each other
        
        Results in gametes with unique chromosome combinations
        
        Underlies the chromosomal basis of inheritance
        
        Law of segrigation
        
        When an individual produces gametes, the copies of a gene separate so that each gamete receives only one copy of that gene
        
        Law of assortment
        
        Separate genes for separate traits are passed independently of each other from parents to offspring
        
        Random Fertilization
        
        Fertilization: the union of two haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote
        
        The union is completely up to chance
        
        Is a result of the random union of gametes during sexual reproduction
        
        Crossing over and recombination
        
        Occurs in prophase 1 when homologous chromosomes pair up
        
        Occurs between non-sister chromatids
        
        Results in two recombinant chromosomes
    - - Mutagen definition: A mutagen is a physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic material of an organism
        
        Physical Mutagens
        
        Disrupts the molecules in the DNA structure
        
        The particles released from radiation emit through energy to disrupt the atoms in the DNA structure
        
        Examples: UV, X-rays, heat
        
        Chemical Mutagens
        
        Interferes with correct DNA replication by inserting themselves into the double helix and distorting it
        
        Chemicals that are similar nitrogenous bases can substitute into the DNA strand and result in a faulty base-pairing, misreading the DNA sequence and disruption of replication machinery
      - Mutation: A heritable change in the structure or amount genetic material
        
        Occur randomly
        
        Categories
        
        Neutral: have no effect on survival
        
        Harmful: Decrease the likelihood of survival
        
        Beneficial: increase the likelihood of survival
        
        Types of mutations
        
        DNA Mutation
        
        A change in the base sequence of a gene, which can cause a change in the polypeptide chain
        
        Occurs during DNA replication
        
        Types of mutations
        
        Point mutations
        
        Missense: One amino acids is produced instead of the original
        
        Nonsense: Results in a stop codon leading to the premature termination of the protein translation
        
        Silent: No change in the produced amino acid
        
        Frameshift mutations
        
        The deletion or insertion of a single or non-multiple of three nucleotides into the DNA
        
        Mutations forms
        
        Deletion
        
        Insertion
        
        Substitution
        
        Chromosome Mutation
        
        A change in the number or structure of chromosomes
        
        Occurs during cell division
        
        Karyotypes: A picture of all of an individuals chromosomes
        
        Homologous chromosome pairs are identified and arranged in size order
        
        Types
        
        Block mutations: When big pieces of the chromosomes are altered in some way
        
        Usually occur during meiosis when egg and sperm is produced
        
        Breakage of a chromosome can lead to to four types of changes in chromosome structure: Insertion or Duplication, Deletion, Inversion and Translocation
        
        4 more items...
        
        Non-disjunction: When homologous chromosomes do not separate equally during meiosis
        
        Gametes have too few or too many chromosomes
        
        Aneuploidy: the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell.
        
        Monosomy: When there is a missing chromosome
        
        Trisomy: When there is an extra chromosome
    - - Definitions
        
        Allele: A way to express a gene (AA, Aa, aa)
        
        Homozygous: an individual that has the same alleles for a trait (aa or AA)
        
        Heterozygous: an individual that has two alleles for a gene
        
        Wild type: the most common phenotype present
        
        Genotype: describes the alleles that are present in an individual
        
        Phenotype: the phenotype of an individual indicates the way in which the gene is expressed (physical representation)
        
        can be dominant or recessive
      - Inheritance
        
        Non-Mendelian
        
        Co-dominance: situation in which both alleles of a gene contribute to the phenotype of the organism (multicolored in one organism
        
        Incomplete dominance: A pattern of inheritance in which two alleles, inherited from the parents, are neither dominant nor recessive. The resulting offspring have a phenotype that is a blending of the parental traits. (mix of white and red = pink)
        
        Multiple alleles: Occurs when a trait is controlled by more than one allele
        
        Polygenic: When one characteristic is controlled by two or more genes which have additive effects (human skin colour)
        
        Sex linked: Controlled by genes on the X chromosome (men will always display the condition as they don't have another X chromosome to sheild)
        
        Mendelian
        
        Phenotypic ratio: 9:3:3:1
        
        Punnet squares
        
        Pedigrees
        
        Determining dominant/recessive
        
        Does this trait appear in every generation
        
        Yes, it is likely a dominant trait
        
        Label unaffected individuals as homozygous recessive
        
        Confirm all affected cases are possible considering parental genotype
        
        No, it is likely a recessive trait
        
        Find an affected offspring and label as homozygous recessive
        
        work backwards to confirm all is possible
    - - Recombinant DNA: the joining together of DNA molecules from different organisms and inserting it into host organisms to produce new genetic combinations
        
        Purposes: Research, forensics, paternity tests, medical testing and agricultural development
        
        Recombinant technology: the molecular cloning of DNA into bacterial extra chromosomal DNA elements
        
        Plasmid: circular molecules of DNA what can only replicate within host cells
        
        Steps
        
        1. Isolation of DNA: restriction enzymes are utlised to cut the desired segment of DNA, they cause sticky (jaggered) or blunt ends
        
        2. Insertion of DNA fragment into Plasmid: The plasmid and DNA are cut in the same way by the same restriction enzyme so they fit together like a puzzle
        
        3. Joining of DNA: DNA ligase joins the DNA and the plasmid together
        
        4. Amplification: the transformed bacterium now makes more copies of the DNA as it progressively replicates naturally
      - GMO: Genetically modified organism
      - CRISPR