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How could you determine the concentration of a specific molecule, ion or…

- - - - Acetic Acid: Most prominent active ingredients in vinegar which has an approximate concentration of 4-7% in vinegar (Ansley Hill, healthline, 2018).
        
        Different types of vinegar primarily required for cleaning and agricultural purposes typically have a higher concentration of acetic acid, approximately 20% (Ansley Hill, healthline, 2018).
        
        Acetic Acid tends to be harmful when its pure and it can cause irritation. However when it is in lower concentrations such as in vinegar, it isn't harmful (Environmental Health, 2023).
      - Water: Water makes up majority of vinegar, approximately 93-96%, acting as the solvent for the acetic acid.
      - Vitamins/Minerals: Depending heavily on the type of vinegar present, small amounts of vitamins and minerals may be present, such as in balsamic and apple cider vinegar
    - - Titration with Sodium Hydroxide
        
        An experiment which would be able to determine the concentration of acetic acid in vinegar would be titration using sodium hydroxide. In essence this process involves filling up a burette (long glass tube) with the sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) and adding a known volume of vinegar into the conical flask, followed by 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. The NaOH is then gradually added into the conical flask until the solution turns pink, indicating that the equivalence point has been reached. Using a specific formula with the concentration of the NaOH solution and the volume of it used, the concentration of acetic acid in the provided vinegar solution can be determined.
        
        Titration is the process in which a solution with a known concentration is used to uncover the concentration of another solution. During this process, the solution with the known concentration is called the titrant, while the solution with the unknown concentration is called the analyte (Purdue University).
      - pH Measurement Approximation
        
        This alternate method involves using pH strips to estimate the concentration of acetic acid in the vinegar sample based on the pH reading of the unknown and the known sample. This process is far simpler however is bound to provide far less accurate and reliable results
  - - - Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3): Sodium Bicarbonate is the single active ingredient present in baking soda, making up close to 100% of this household item
        
        In large doses, sodium bicarbonate can be harmful and cause irritation.
    - - Titration with Hydrochloric Acid
        
        The same process as previously described with the titration of vinegar with sodium hydroxide could be repeated to confirm the purity of baking soda to be as close to 100% as possible. However due to baking soda being in a powder form, some changes would be required to allow titration to happen. Firstly, the known mass of baking soda would have to be dissolved in distilled water to construct a solution. Additionally hydrochloric acid will be used in this experiment due to its strength as an acid. However an alternate indicator would have to be utilized in this experiment due to previous experiments show that using phenolphthalein as an indicator isn't successful and leads to inaccurate results.
      - Gas Release
        
        When baking soda reacts with an acid, it releases carbon dioxide gas. If this gas is collected and then measured, it can be directly proportional to the concentration of sodium bicarbonate in the baking soda. While this method is far less accurate, it is still a viable option to determine sodium bicarbonate concentration.
  - - - Surfactants: Surfactants are the most prominent active ingredient present in practically all dishwashing liquids. Surfactants work by reducing the surface tension of water, allowing it to penetrate through grease, oil and dirt from dishes. There are many different types of surfactants, however Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) and Sodium Laureth Sulfate (SLES) are most commonly used (Xie J., Yeser, 2023).
        
        Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS): This surfactant is very strong and is primarily known for its excellent ability to foam up and emulsify.
        
        Sodium Laureth Sulfate (SLES): This surfactant is milder when compared to SLS, and is used in dishwashing liquids promoted for peoples with sensitive skin. However, it also has great foaming properties. SLES is the most commonly used surfactant in dishwashing liquids around the world due to its cost effectiveness and accessibility.
        
        Surfactants aren't harmful upon touch, however if consumed, it can have damages to the membranes in the digestive system and cause vomiting, diarrhea and flatulence.
      - Fragrances and Dyes: Fragrances and Dyes are commonly added to dishwashing liquid worldwide. While the addition of these doesn't contribute to the overall cleaning power of the dishwashing liquid, it does provide a nice smell and colour which makes it seem more appealing.
      - Enzymes: Interestingly, enzymes are added to many dishwashing liquids to help break down food residues such as protein, starch and fat. Enzymes act as biological catalysts, speeding up reactions without being eliminated in the process. Enzymes are essential in the digestive system, used to break down macronutrients. This exact principle is utilised in dishwashing liquids to break down residual macronutrients on dishes.
    - - Surfactant Titration
        
        Similarly, titration can also be used as a method to determine the concentration of Surfactants in dishwashing liquid. However, in order to titrate surfactants, a two-step titration method will have to be used due to the polyoxyethylene (POE) groups present in many surfactants (Metrohm, 2023).
  - - - Alcohol: Alcohol is the primary active ingredient in hand sanitizer which is responsible for killing germs. The two most common types of alcohol in hand sanitizer are ethanol and isopropyl alcohol. Hand sanitizers have alcohol percentages ranging from 60-95%, with hand sanitizers out of this range being deemed less effective by the FDA (Jacqueline Howard, CNN, 2019).
        
        Ethanol VS Isopropyl: These two most common types of alcohol in hand sanitizers both do virtually the same thing as they both effectively kill bacteria, viruses and fungi. However, it has been proven that ethanol has more effectiveness against enveloped viruses such as influenza and the coronavirus. However, isopropyl has more effectiveness against non-enveloped viruses.
        
        Both ethanol and isopropyl alcohol can be very dangerous. Consuming either results in choking and irritation to the body. They are both also flammable, posing as a fire risk.
      - Water: Like many of the other household items present in this mind map, water is a primary component. While water isn't an active ingredient due to it not actually killing any viruses, it is simply used to water the alcohol down to achieve the required consistency.
    - - Distillation: Perhaps the simplest of experiments to find the concentration of a household item. This process would involve heating up two liquids of different boiling point, which in this case would be ethanol/isopropyl alcohol and water. The ethanol which has a lower boiling point would turn into water vapor and then back into liquid droplets upon reaching the condensation tube. The ethanol which is then separated from the water and the other small components of the hand sanitizer can then be put into a formula to find the percentage of ethanol present in the hand sanitizer (Amount of ethanol/Amount of hand sanitizer x 100 = Percentage of ethanol).
  - - - Triglycerides: Forms the main component of cooking oil, which is derived from glycerol and three other fatty acids
      - Free Fatty Acids: Cooking oils have a very small percentage of free fatty acids which are used to determine acidity of cooking oil (Wikipedia).
      - Cooking oil presents no harm to the body and isn't flammable.
    - - Titration: The amount of free fatty acids in cooking oil can vary between different brands. Titration can be used again to find the concentration of free fatty acids in cooking oil. This process remains the same as all the other trials, however sodium hydroxide would be used as the titrant (known concentration). The phenolphthalein indicator can still be used for this experiment unlike with baking powder, in which a different indicator is required.