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PSYU2236 - Biopsychology & Learning - Coggle Diagram
PSYU2236 - Biopsychology & Learning
Week 1
Non-Associative Learning
Types
Habituation (decrease in response)
dishabituation
Sensitisation (increase in response)
Desensitisation
Associative Learning
Week 2
Parts of a neuron
Main cell types in nervous system
Neurons
Classified by number of neurites, type of dendrites, axon length, neurotransmitter & synaptic connections
Afferent (to synapse)
Efferent (from synapse)
Glial cells
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Schwann cells (periphery)
Radial glia
Microglia
Golgi
Type I (long)
Type II (short)
Action Potential steps
Week 3
Synapse
Post Synaptic Potential
EPSP
IPSP
Neural Integration
Types
Electrical
Chemical
Arrangements
Axodendritic
Axosomatic
Axoaxonic
Receptor types
Ionotropic
Metabotropic
Week 4
Neuroanatomy
CNS
Cerebrum
Emotions
Sensation
Controlled actions
Cerebellum
Movement coordination
Brain Stem
Basic Bodily functions
Spinal Cord
Information relay between body & brain
Functions
Reasoning and judgment
Learning & memory
Homeostasis
PNS
Somatic Nervous System
Voluntary Actions
Sensory Nerves (Dorsal roots)
Motor Nerves (Ventral roots)
Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic
Prepares body for action
Parasympathetic
Manages non-emergency responses
Involuntary functions
Brain Regions & Functions
Cerebral Cortex
Frontal lobe (motor functions, cognitive functions [planning, decision making])
Parietal Lobe (sensory information, spatial awareness)
Occipital Lobe
Temporal Lobe (Auditory processing, memory [Broca's & Wernicke's area])
Limbic System
Amygdala (emotional processing: fear)
Hippocampus (long term memory, spatial navigation)
Cingulate gyrus (involved in emotional processing: pain)
Basal Ganglia
Movement
Cognition
Motivation
Communication between brain & body
Blood Brain Barrier
Protects brain
Restricts substance passage
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Cushions brain
Nutrient delivery
Waste removal
Hormones
Controlled by hypothalamus & pituitary gland
Functions: growth, stress response (cortisol), bonding (oxytocin)
Week 5
Chemical Synapses & Neurotransmitter Function
Action potential and calcium
Neurotransmitter criteria
Synthesized and stored in cell
Released on action potential
Binds to receptors and causes a biological effect
Inactivation mechanisms exist
Same biological effect if applied artificially
Synapse events
Neurotransmitter bind to postsynaptic receptors to trigger a response
Neurotransmitter Types & Their Roles
Amino Acids
Glutamate
GABA
Monoamines
Dopamine
Serotonin
Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)
Acetylcholine
Important for memory, perceptual learning, movement, REM sleep
Neurotransmitter Dysfunction
Schizophrenia
Positive symptoms (increased dopamine in nucleus accumbens)
Negative symptoms (decreased dopamine in prefrontal cortex)
Dopamine Hypothesis
Depression
Monoamine levels
Treatment: MAOIs, TCAs, SSRIs increase monoamine levels
Antipsychotic & Antidepressants
First-generation Antipsychotics (typical)
Block D1 and D2 dopamine receptors
Reduce positive symptoms but cause extrapyramidal side effects
Second-generation Antipsychotics (atypical)
More selective for D2 receptors
Target serotonin to address negative and cognitive symptoms
Antidepressants
MAOIs: Prevents breakdown of monoamines
TCAs: Block reuptake of all monoamines
SSRIs: Focus on increasing serotonin levels with fewer side-effects
Week 6
Learning & Memory
Memory Types
Short-term
Long-term
Procedural
Neuroplasticity
Neurogenesis
Synaptic Plasticity
Dendritic Branching
Cortical reorganisation
Synaptic Changes
Long Term Potentiation (LTP)
Strengthening of synapse connections; increases neuron excitability.
Long Term Depression (LTD)
Weakening of synapse connections; helps in unlearning.
Glutamate receptors
Involvement in LTP and LTD, including NMDA and AMPA receptors.
Hippocampus & Memory
Declarative
Spatial
Amnesia
Anterograde
Retrograde
Alzheimer's Disease
Memory Loss
Progressive loss of memory, starting with recent memories.
Acetylcholine Reduction
Decreased levels of acetylcholine, crucial for memory and learning.
Neurodegeneration
Progressive loss of neurons, especially in the hippocampus and cortex.
Week 7
Addiction
Reward Pathway
Mesolimbic Dopamine System
Nucleus Accumbens (NA)
Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
Dopamine release reinforces drug-taking behaviour
Types of drugs
Stimulants
Cocaine
Amphetamine
MDMA
Narcotics
Opium
Heroin
Morphine
Short-term Effects
Increased dopamine
Euphoria, relaxation, increased energy
Long-term Effects
Psychosis, anxiety, neurotoxicity
Substance use disorder (Addiction)
Dependence
Physical: WIthdrawal
Psychological: Craving
Tolerance
Brain Systems
Nucleus Accumbens (NA)
Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)
Amygdala & Hippocampus
Dorsal Striatum (habit formation)
Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC) (Value of reward, compulsive behaviour)
Mechanisms of Addiction
Dopamine Theory
Liking vs wanting
Craving & Relapse
Environmental cues
Glutamate
Neurotoxicity
MDMA
Serotonin depletion
Methamphetamine
Destroys dopamine neurons
Risk of parkinsons-like symptoms
Chronic Effects
Psychological disorders
Neuroadaptations leading to addiction
Key Theories
Opponent process theory
Dopamine & Reward Prediction Error
Week 8
Acquisition & Learning
Learning phase
Negatively accelerating curve
Gradual CR formation
Inhibition
Latent inhibition: Pre-exposure effect
Conditioned inhibition: Absence of US
External inhibition: Novel stimulus inhibition
Disinhibition: CR reappears with novel stimulus
Temporal Relationships
Delayed Conditioning: CS preces US (most effective)
Simultaneous conditioning: CS & US together (Weak)
Trace Conditioning: CS ends before US (memory required)
Backward conditioning: CS after US (Rarely effective)
Extinction & Recovery
Extinction: CS without US
Spontaneous recovery: CR reappears after rest
Reinstatement: US after extinction revives CR
Conditioning Theories
Stimulus Substitution Theory: CS substitutes US
Preparatory Response Theory: CR prepares for US
Compensatory Response Model: CR counteracts US
Conditioning Limitations
Overshadowing: Strong stimulus overpowers weaker one
Blocking: Prior CS blocks new conditioning
Advanced Conditioning
Higher-Order conditioning: CS2 conditioned via CS1
Sensory Pre-conditioning: Two NS associated before one becomes CS
Real World Application
Addiction: Sign-tracking behaviour in addiction cues
Therapy: Systematic desensitisation in phobias
Week 9
Classical Conditioning Continued...
Rescorla-Wagner Model
Prediction Error
Blocking
Overexpectation
Alternative Thoeries
Attention-based theories
Comparator Theories
Practical Applications
Exposure Therapy
Phobia Treatment
PTSD Therapy
Week 10
Operant Conditioning
Theories
Thorndike's Law of Effect: Behaviour followed by reinforcement is likely to occur again
Skinner Box: Measures behaviour through consequences (reward/punishment)
Reinforcement Types
Positive Reinforcement
: Adding pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour
Negative Reinforcement
: Removing unpleasant stimulus to increase behaviour
Positive Punishment
: Adding unpleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour
Negative Punishment
: Removing pleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour
Shaping
Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Schedule: Every behaviour is reinforced
Partial Schedules
Fixed-Ratio: Reinforcement after set number of responses
Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement after a random number of responses
Fixed-Interval: Reinforcement after set amount of time
Variable-Interval: Reinforcement after random amount of time
Additional Concepts
Ratio Strain: Frustration from overly high response requirements
Goal Gradient Hypothesis: The closer to the goal, the faster the behaviour
Premack Principle: High-probability can reinforce low-probability behaviours
Differential Reinforcement
DRO (other behaviour): Reinforces behaviours other than the undesired one
DRI (Incompatible Behaviour): Reinforcements behaviour that is incompatible with the undesired one
DRL (low rates of responding):
DRA (Alternative behaviour)
Week 11
Operant Conditioning & Extinction
Chaining
Forward chaining
Backward chaining
Reinforcement
Positive
Negative
Punishment
Positive
Negative
Extinction: Reduction in behaviour when reinforcement is removed
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of behavour after a delay
Renewal: Behaviour returns in a different context after extinction
Reinstatement: Behaviour returns after the US is presented again
Rapid Reacquisition: Faster relearning of a behaviour after extinction
Resurgence: Return of previously extinguished behaviour when a newly learned behaviour is no longer reinforced
Relapse Process
Occur when extinguished behaviours reappear due to various conditions
Week 12
Aversive control
Escape behaviour
Avoidance behaviour
Types of avoidance
Active
Passive
Theories of avoidance
Two-factor Theory
Classical conditioning (fear response to warning signal) combined with operant conditioning (avoidance reduces fear)
One-factor Theory
Avoidance driven purely by operant conditioning, reducing the aversive stimulus without the need for fear
Cognitive Theory
Expectation-based: Acting will prevent the aversive stimulus
Learned Helplessness
Types of negative punishment
Time-out
Response Cost
Problems with punishment
Suppression of both undesired and desired behaviours
Avoidance of the punisher, not the behaviour
Can trigger emotional responses like aggression
Effective Punishment
Must be immediate and consistent
Most effective when combined with positive reinforcement for desired behaviours