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12.2 Respiration - Coggle Diagram

- - - - enzyme which removes carbon dioxide fm acid -
        
        remove one c, you get a 2 carb compound
        
        you get acetaldehyde
        
        decarboxylation removes the c
  - - - someone should give a proton - fm nadh2
        
        alcohol formed - ethyl alcohol
        
        happens in presence of fmn and Zn+ ions
        
        enzyme - alcohol dehydrogenase
        
        the 2 reduced nad fm glycolysis are used here
        
        form nad again
  - - - so this can't happen for a long time
        
        yeast is also called facultative anaerobes
        
        also : obligate anaerobes - only survive without oxygen
- - - - called paddy fields
        
        intentionally waterlogged
        
        most weeds cant survive in waterlogged conditions
        
        rice can adapt to anaerobic respiration
  - - - so oxygen and carbon dioxide photosynthesis and growth can't happen
        
        coz diffusion is slow in water
        
        coz whatever oxygen was present will be quickly used up by the weeds
  - - - coz of ethylene - gas plant hormone
        
        commercial application - to ripen fruits
        
        stimulates the production of gibberellin
        
        promotes rapid cell division and cell elongation
        
        irrespective of being waterlogged, it can keep it above the water
        
        other plants inside the water will die
  - - - coz of modified parenchymatal cells
        
        gives it buoyancy - to remain above
        
        the air fm which photosynthesis takes place
        
        stem has modified cells where gases can diffuse
        
        they're like holes - for gases to diffuse and buoyancy
  - - - ridges make them hydrophobic
        
        rough and corrugated appearance
        
        trap layers of air on its surface
        
        if can't absorb gases below soil, it can do it above it - on the surface of leaves
  - - - broken down and little energy is released for the plant to survive, but not much for anything else
        
        after too much of alcohol though, cells could die
        
        but rice make the breakdown enzyme
        
        so it can surviveeeeee
- - - - initial step
        
        common pathway for aerobic and anaerobic
  - - - independent of the presence of oxygen
        
        otherwise it would be in the mitochondrial matrix
  - - - any organic substance which has a high energy
        
        when catabolised it releases energy
        
        called a respiratory substance
        
        most favoured is glucose
        
        in spite of that when glucose is oxidised, it releases a lot of energy
        
        but the oxidation doesn't happen that easily
        
        1 more item...
    - - second set of reactions
        
        for 2 mols atp used, 4 mols of atp is generated,
        
        net gain of 2 atp mols
        
        these phases, where atp mol - energy invesment is paid back
        
        Energy Pay-Off Phase
  - - - several enzymes at each step
        
        identify important enzymes
    - - catalyse the addition or removal of phosphate group to atp or adp
        
        associated with the transfer of high energy phosphate groups to or from atp molecules
    - - catalyse isomerisation reactions
        
        any reaction where intramolecular rearrangement of atoms within these molecules
        
        forms one type of isomer from another
        
        causes mutarotation - so called mutases
    - - enzymes which catalyse the splitting of specific covalent bonds
        
        associated with the removal of certain functional groups
        
        but without hydrolysis, though water can break bonds too
    - - catalyse removal of hydrogen/ catalyses oxidation
        
        oxidation is removal of hydrogen
    - - catalyse dehydration reactions
        
        associated with dehydration/condensation reactions
        
        removal of water
    - - atp is dephosphorylated - releases phosphate
        
        glucose -6- phosphate
        
        isomerase - phospho-hexose-isomerase
        
        fructo - 6 - phosphate
        
        atp gives off another phosphate group
        
        fructo-1,6,-phosphate
        
        2 more items...
        
        a phosphate group is added
        
        intramolecular rearrangement of atoms
        
        since they're isomers
        
        catalysed by glucokinase/ hexokinase
        
        phosphorylation reaction
- - - - in form of atp (used readily) or stored for some time
  - - - enzyme controlled multi step process
        
        energy is always released in small parts
  - - - glycolysis
        
        break down of glucose
        
        initial step in cellular respiration
        
        common pathway for aerobic and anaerobic
        
        it is independent of conc of oxygen
        
        doesn't matter
        
        happens in the cytoplasm
        
        aka - emben-meyerhoff-parnas
        
        also called the EMB pathway
        
        glucose is broken down enzymatically
        
        forming 2 mols of pyruvic acid/ pyruvate
        
        C6H12O6 -> CH3COCOO-
        
        6 carbon compound broken down into 2 mol of a 3 carb compound
        
        one of the most simple of alpha keto acid - ketone and carboxylic acid
        
        fate of pyruvic acid depends on presence or absence of oxygen
        
        when no oxygen, it enters into fermentation pathway
        
        2 types depending on end product
        
        ethyl alcohol
        
        in plants and yeast
        
        lactic acid fermentation in muscle cells in animals
        
        if oxygen is there
        
        moves into remaining stages of cellular respiration
        
        link reaction
      - link reaction
        
        definition
        
        oxygen must be present
        
        aka gateway step
        
        products fm link can only enter krebs cycle
        
        called link coz it link two main pathways - glycolysis and krebs cycle
        
        happens in the matrix of mitochondria
        
        pyruvic undergoes oxidative decarboxylation
        
        removes one carbon
        
        forms acetyl CoA (2C + coenzyme A)
      - Kreb's cycle
        
        acetyl is completely oxidised
        
        gives co2 and water
        
        and several mols of high energy electron carriers
        
        called nadh + h+ (nadh2) and fadh2
      - ETC
        
        electron transport chain
        
        all high energy electrons in nadh2 and fadh2 passes through a series of electron carriers
        
        takes the high energy electrons fm kreb's cycle and glycolysis
        
        gives the electrons to other electron carriers
      - oxidative phosphorylation
        
        energy is used to make atp
        
        made by phosphorylation of adp
        
        comes fm energy released by electron transport chain
- - - - in this pathway, mitochondria utilises its structure, enzymes and energy released when respiratory substrates are subjected to redox reactions
        
        electrons move fm high to low (electron carrier) potential
        
        used for synthesis of atp
  - - - 12 identical c
        
        1 gamma
        
        3 pairs of alpha and beta
  - - - fad can also accept -> fadh2
        
        have reducing power
    - - do they donate elec and protons into mitochondrial matrix
        
        now get back into oxidised state
    - - over time, coz of constant pumping,
        
        makes an electrochemical gradient - matrix is proton deficient
        
        electrons were released into the electron transport chain
        
        that energy drives the proton pump
    - - can't go back the same way - impermeable
        
        only way back is through the enzyme complex - f0f1 complex
        
        gradient moves the rotor part, and axle
        
        but alpha and beta doesn't move
        
        where alpha and beta intersection - point of formation for an atp molecules
  - - - transfers into complex 1
        
        fad route only one step in kreb's cycle
        
        conversion into acid
        
        coenzyme complexes
- - - - atp used - 2
        
        net atp =2
    - - 1 nadh gives 3 mol atp
        
        2 x 3
        
        =6
    - - atp
        
        4
        
        for 1 mol of, 6 formed
        
        TOTALLY
        
        ATP FORMED = 38
        
        ?
      - nadh2
        
        30
      - fadh2
        
        4
  - - - 0
    - - 2 x 3
        
        6
  - - - 2
    - - 6
        
        6 x 3
        
        =18
    - - 2
        
        2 x 2
        
        =4
      - every fadh2 gives 2 mol atp
- - - - 3 and 4 are cytochrome complexes - have prosthetic groups - cofactors - inorganic metal ions
        
        it is a dimer - b and c1
        
        accepts electrons and transfers to 4
        
        electrons make energy released, so 1 more atp formed
        
        energy released fm 3 and 4
        
        4 is a and a3
        
        1 more item...
  - - - energy required for phosphorylating adp is obtained fm electrons moving fm
        
        talk about
    - - phosphorylation in the presence of oxygen
        
        energy comes fm electrochemical gradient
        
        a metabolic pathway, at the end of aerobic respiration
        
        energy for phosphorylating adp and Pi comes fm energy released when electrons move fm a high energy to a low energy level/ down an electrochemical gradient
        
        by chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis
- - - - but anaerobic respiration happens only in the cell
        
        eg if muscle cells dont have o2, then its anaerobic
    - - usually in bacteria, yeast, roots of waterlogged plants, or muscle cells in animals
  - - - when oxygen present, goes into link reaction, krebs cycle
        
        and oxygen is a terminal accept, respiratory substrate oxidised
    - - here, the protons are accepted by pyruvic acid
        
        fermentation is a process where respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen, where the protons released
  - - - homofermentation
        
        eg lactic acid fermentation
    - - heterofermentation
        
        eg alcoholic fermentation
- - - - cells are using it up too quickly
  - - - glucose gives pyruvic acid
        
        gets reduced, forms lactic acid
        
        need to get 2 protons fm nadh + h+
        
        gives only 2 atp mols
        
        enzyme is lactate dehydrogenase
        
        fm glycolysis
  - - - cells can't function
        
        acid accumulation results in muscular fatigue
        
        its highly volatile, so easily oxidised
        
        when oxygen is available again
- - - - but anaerobic is alcohol and carbon dioxide
        
        they hold a lot of energy in the products - acids
        
        and can't be oxidised
        
        to get useful energy - they just give heat
- - - - 6 carbon high energy sugar
        
        serves as primary or favoured respiratory substance
    - - most important
      - high energy nucleotide
        
        capable of storing and transferring energy within the cell
    - - similarity
        
        both are coenzymes
      - holoenzyme
        
        a complete enzyme
        
        when it has a prosthetic group (non protein part) and the apoenzyme (the protein part)
        
        when prosthetic group = organic - coenzyme, or inorganic = metal ion/cofactor
      - organic mol is made of a vitamin
        
        nad - vitamin b3
        
        fad - vitamin b2
      - high energy electron carriers
        
        when sub is oxidised - loss of electrons
        
        something needs to accpet the electrons
        
        this is what nad+ is for
        
        always pair of electrons and protons
        
        when accepts an electron
        
        1 more item...