Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Psychopathology, COGNITIVE EXPLANATION, Positive view of self Resist…
Psychopathology
Definitions of abnormality
Statistical Infrequency
When a person has a
less common characteristic
than the rest of
the population
. We use
standard deviation
to determine this. Anything
<2 standard deviation >
from the mean is statistically infrequent
E.g - IQ below 70 is SI
SŹ, Au - 1% OCD - 2% classes as SI
✅
real life application
- use part of clinical diagnosis
❌ some ‘SI’ beh could be
desirable
e.g high IQ
❌ doesn’t work when explaining all disorders - for example depression if very
common
, people may fall into the normal
Deviation from Social Norms
When behaviours
break the norms
of society’s culture
E.g
Rosa Parks
not giving up her seat for a white person,
Nymphomania
- when m/c men are attracted to w/c women
❌
cultural relativism
- it’s unfair to judge others
❌ social
norms change
over time so this is not a definite explanation
Failure to function Adequately
When a person cannot
cope
with the
demands
of everyday life
E.g EDs, Maladaotive daydreaming, OCD, Phobias, Depression
❌ some ‘abnormal’ people
can function
completely adequately e.g
Harold Shipman
who was a GP that killed 400 elderly people
Deviation from ideal Mental Health
Jahoda said that when people don’t make the list of -
Depression
- no positive view of self,
OCD
- can’t resist stress, not autonomous
✅
comprehensive
- covers ALL disorders
❌
unclear
- doesn’t state how many catregories met means abnormal
❌ cultural relativism - definitions of the ‘
self’ category may differ
( western cultures individualistic whereas others may be collectivist
OCD
CHARACTERISTICS
beh
- (compulsions - external), ritualistic, repetitive beh
emo
- anxiety/depression
cog
- (obsession - internal), obsessive/intrusive thoughts, catastrophic thinking
BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS
Genetic
suggests OCD is caused by a genetic vulnerability for it
uses concordance rated to measure
ocd is polygenic ( Taylor 2013)- 230 potential OCD genes - ❌ little predictive value in future - so many
✅
Lewis et al
- of his OCD patients, 37% of their parents had ocd, 21% of their siblings had it too, suggesting there is a genetic basis for it
✅Nestadt et al
- reviewed previous twin studies and found that
68% MZ
twins shared OCD whereas
32% DZ
twins, strongly suggesting genetic basis
❌
ignored environmental factors
, the fact that identical twins (100% dna match) do not experience a 100% chance of having OCD suggests that there are other things that affect likelihood of having OCD
Neural
-
suggests that OCD individuals have:
low
levels of
serotonin
- low mood
high
levels of
dopamine
- compulsive beh
due to the dysregulated function of the orbital prefrontal cortex
✅
Pigott et al (1992)
antidepressants which increase serotonin have improved OCD symptoms
❌ however many people experiencing OCD also experience
depression
so maybe the drugs are relieving depression symptoms
✅
Saxena + Rauch (2000)
- reviewed studied using MRIs, FMRIs, + PET scans and found consistent assosiation between OCD + OFC
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS
SSRIS
inhibit the re uptake of serotonin by blocking re up take channels in PSN
so more serotonin is left in synapse to potentially bind to PSN
normalised worry circuit
e.g. Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil
Tricyclics / NSRIs
work same as SSRI, but also block reuptake of noradrenaline/norapinephrine
more NTS left in synapse for potential binding
Benzodiazepine
increases the activity of GABA ( inhibitory NTS which has quietening effect on brain )
binds to GABA receptors on PSN
increases negatively charged (chloride ions) to receptors
increases inhibition through summations where there will be more inhibitory NTS
therefore PSN doesn’t fire
✅ little effort required to take - suitable for those who are also depressed
✅
Soomro et al (2005
) looked at 17 studies of those who had OCD and found that all relieved more from taking the drugs over the placebo
✅ cheaper - costs less as less monitoring required than CBT
❌ side effects - SSRIS - headaches, addictive
Tricyclics - hallucination, increased heart rate
BZ- aggression, LTM problems, addictive
leads to patients not taking as off putting, less effective
❌ publishing bias - much research for effectiveness of treatment is funded by drug companies themselves so they may choose to only publish the data that suggests drug is useful
PHOBIAS
CHARACTERISTICS
beh
- panic, avoidance, endurance, freeze response
emo
anxiety
cog
irrational beliefs, selective attention, cognitive distortion
BEHAVIOURAL EXPLANATION
Mowrer's 2 process mode (1960)
- phobias are learnt through CC then maintained through OC
Ns —> 0
UCS —> UCR
NS+UCS —> UCR
CS—>CR
Operant Conditioning
reinforcement increases behaviours
phobic response = unpleasant
escaping the object = decreased fear
(negative reinforcement)
✅ Little Albert - Watson + Raynor
- conditioned a fear response in an 11 yo boy to a white rat, metal bars clanged as rat was shown, Albert associated loud noise w/ rats
❌ case study, can’t generalise to population
✅
real life application
- explanation shows how CBT can be useful by reminding clients that objects won’t harm them
❌
Bounton (2007)
argues that biological factors could have an influence, explains this through our fear of snakes as they threatened our ancestors
❌
Seligmann (1997)
‘biological preparedness’ we are more likely to have a phobia to prepared stimuli that posed a threat to survival
TREATMENTS
Flooding
Prolonged exposure
Relaxation thought
Full exposure to fear object (can’t avoid)
Until fear reaction is exhausted
Study: Wolpe (1960
) used flooding to remove a girl’s fear of cars. girl forced to be driven around for 4 hours till her screaming/hysteria was exhausted.
✅
Choy et al
- said SD + flooding both effective, but flooding more so
✅ ethical - parents must consent
❌
withdrawal before exhaustion
could increase fear
❌ can be traumatic - individual reactions to flooding differ so this can limit the effectiveness of the therapy
Systematic Desensetization
Wolf
: rids fear through reciprocal inhibition by subbing a competing response
1)
gradual
exposure
2) create
anxiety hierarchy
(>3) pic, video, live
3)
relaxation
thought
4) gradually move up hierarchy only when patient is
fully relaxed
Study; McGrath et al (1990)
reported a
75%
patient positive response to SD
✅
simple process patients control
- less traumatic than flooding
✅ lots of supporting research
❌ may not be effective for all phobias
Ohmann et al (1975)
may not be as effective w/ those who have biologically prepared phobias as this is innate and unchangable
❓ alternative -
COVERT SENSITISATION
which is less intense where clients imagine the process
❌ no guarantee it’ll work with actual objects/ real situations but a good start
Depression
CHARACTERISTICS
:
Beh
- tiredness, insomnia, lack of appetite/energy, no interest in appearance
Emotional
- sadness, emptiness, worthlessness, anger towards self
Cognitive
- lack of energy, focus on negatives - absolutist, self harming
COGNITIVE TREATMENTS
Beck’s CBT
aims to change the negative schemas
1) identify +
challenge neg schemas
2) challenge +
dispute
them (logically, empirically, pragmatically)
therapist counter evidences thoughts + rationalisee them
✅Cuijpas et al (2013
) study found CBT was 75% more effective than no treatment
❌March (2007
) found that CBT and Antidepressantions were
5%
more effective together (
86%
) than alone, suggests combination is best approach
Ellis’s REBT
rational-emotional BT
aims to challenge and identify irrational thoughts through vigorous arguments
clients encourages to engage in
enjoyable activities
to further counter evidence their neg ideas
✅ support for REBT -
*Ellis
- 90% success rate
- ❌ researcher bias
❌
* not suitable for severe clients
- some may be so depressed they cannot bring themselves to carry out the homework aspect, leading to impaired results, suggesting REBR is not effective for all those of depression
1) initial assessment + goal setting 8wks
2) identifying negative irrational thoughts + challenge through BT and REBT
3) homework + reality testing
COGNITIVE
EXPLANATION
Beck’s Cognitive Triad
self, world, future
faulty info processing - negative schemas + cog triad leads to cognitive vulnerability of developing dep
info processing
- patient blows small situations out of proportion
neg schema
- patients interpret key info abt themselves neg
✅ supporting research -
Grazioli and Terry
- 65 pregnant women + found a positive correlation between cognitive vulnerability and depression
✅ real life application to CBT
❌
doesn’t explain all aspects of depression
- e.g hallucinations and anxiety so clients may go without a diagnosis using the triad
Ellis’ ABC model
A -
Activating
Event
B -
Belief
(ir)ational
C -
Consequence
(irrational beh leads to unhealthy cons. - dep
those w out depression do not experience irrational thoughts
mustabatory thinking
- also leads to depression
✅
real life application
- CBT, model suggests to challenge beliefs
❌ doesn’t explain all types of depression - good for
reactive
depression (clear activating event ) but not much else. people with other types of dep may become frustrated and invalidated when they can’t get diagnosed
Positive view of self
Resist stress
Autonomy
Master of environment
Perception of reality
Self actualisation
Classical Conditioning
association of NS+UCS w/ fear