Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

BIOLOGY, image, image :, image, image, image, image, image, image, image,…

- - - - Enzymes
    - - Neurotransmitters
      - Hormones
    - - Muscles
      - Blood Cells
      - Eye Colour
      - Nails
      - Blood Vessels
      - Skin
      - Organs
      - Hair
  - - - A nucleotide is made of:
        
        A sugar (deoxyribose)
        
        A phosphate group
        
        A nitrogenous base (A, T, G, or C)
  - - - Adenine always pairs with Thymine
      - Guanine always pairs with Cytosine
  - - - Different species have different number of chromosomes.
      - Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes.
    - - They are structurally identical (look the same) and have genes coding for the same traits in the same spots but the genes may have different genetic codes, so they are genetically different.
  - - - Asexual Reproduction
        
        Asexual reproduction involves a single parent. Offspring are genetically identical to that parent (or clones).
        
        Asexual reproduction is single cell organisms is called binary fission.
        
        Asexual reproduction in plants is called vegetative propagation.
        
        Asexual reproduction in animals by cutting off body parts fragmentation and regeneration.
        
        Asexual reproduction in animals by growing a tiny offspring from its body.
        
        1 more item...
      - Sexual Reproduction
        
        Sexual reproduction produces genetic variation by combining the genes of a female and a male parent.
        
        In humans, sex is determined by a pair of sex chromosomes (XX for females, XY for males). Other chromosomes are called autosomes.
        
        Males and females produce sex cells or gametes (e.g. eggs / ova or sperm cells) via a process called meiosis.
        
        During fertilization, a female and a male gamete combine to produce a zygote.
        
        Haploid cells - cells with one set of chromosomes (n). Produced by meiosis.
        
        1 more item...
        
        Diploid Cells - cells with two sets of chromosomes (2n). Produced by fertilization and mitosis.
        
        Meiosis:
        
        Interphase:
        
        Centrioles have duplicated.
        
        Chromatin has duplicated and is uncondensed,
        
        Prophase 1:
        
        Synapsis - Homologous chromosomes pair up.
        
        Crossing over (recombination) - Homologous chromosomes exchange pieces.
        
        Chiasma - Site of crossing over.
        
        Prophase 2:
        
        Centrioles double and spindle fibers reappear,
        
        Nuclear membrane and nucleolus dissapear.
        
        Metaphase 1:
        
        Homologous chromosomes line up (in pairs) along the equator.
        
        Independent Assortment - Chromosomes line up randomly to increase genetic variation.
        
        Metaphase 2:
        
        Chromosomes line up single file along the equator.
        
        Anaphase 1:
        
        Homologous chromosomes are pulled apart from each other.
        
        Sister chromatids remain attached at centromere.
        
        Anaphase 2:
        
        Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of each cell.
        
        Telophase 1:
        
        Complete cell division to produce two haploid daughter cells.
        
        Telophase 2:
        
        Cytokinesis occurs and cells divide into 4 haploid daughter cells.
        
        Cells are genetically different (genetic variation) - no two gametes are the same.
  - - - Growth - make new cells for growth.
        
        The growth stage, called interphase, is divided into three phases:
        
        G1 - Cell grows and performs its function.
        
        S - Growth and replication (copying) of DNA..
        
        G2 - Growth and final preparations for cell division.
        
        The division stage or Mitotic phase (M) is the shortest event in the cell cycle and involves two processes:
        
        Mitosis - Division of the nucleus (PMAT).
        
        Interphase:
        
        Centrioles have doubled (not in plant cells, they lack centrioles).
        
        Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are visible.
        
        Chromatin has replicated and is uncondensed in the nucleus.
        
        Prophase:
        
        Centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell and spindle fibers appear.
        
        Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes early in this stage.
        
        Nuclear membrane and nucleolus dissapear.
        
        Metaphase:
        
        Spindle fibers (proteins called microtubules), attach to the centromeres, move chromosomes toward the middle of cell (equator).
        
        Anaphase:
        
        Spindle fibers shorten and centromeres split.
        
        Sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell towards the centrioles.
        
        Telophase:
        
        Spindle fibers disappear
        
        Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
        
        Chromosomes uncoil and become chromatin again.
        
        Cytokinesis occurs.
        
        Cytokenisis - Division of the cytoplasm and the cell membrane.
        
        Cytoplasm and organelles divide.
        
        Animal cells - cells membrane pinches in forming a cleavage furrow.
        
        Plant cells - a cell plate forms in the middle to create a new cell wall.
      - Repair - make new cells to repair damaged tissue or replace worn cells.
      - Reproduction - for certain asexual organisms.
  - - - Can be detected by viewing the chromosomes under the microscope via a process called karyotyping.
    - - Extra or missing chromosomes - non-disjunction during anaphase 1 or 2 of meiosis.
        
        Nondisjunction
        
        Chromosomes do no separate during anaphase1 or anaphase 2.
        
        Results in gametes with an extra chromosome (24) or a missing chromosome (22).
      - Other abnormalities - errors in crossing over during prophase 1 of meiosis.
    - - A missing chromosome - Have only one member of a homologous pair. E.g. Turner Syndrome (XO)
    - - An extra chromosome - Have three copies of a single chromosome. E.g. Triple X, Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
      - The risk for chromosomal abnormalities starts to increase after a woman is over 35.
    - - When a chromosome breaks apart during crossing over but attaches to its homologous chromosome that has not broken apart.
    - - Chromosome testing can be done before birth using one of two ways of obtaining fetal cells:
        
        Chorionic Villus Sampling - 10th - 13th week
        
        Amniocentesis - 15th to 23rd week
        
        The chromosomes in the cells are then viewed by creating a karyotype.
  - - - According to the law of segregation, only one of the two gene copies present in a parent is randomly distributed to each gamete (egg or sperm).
      - When egg and sperm join during fertilization they form a new organism with a combination of the alleles in the gametes.
    - - When Mendel initially performed his pea plant experiments he was investigating only one trait at a time.
      - Mendel wanted to know if the inheritances of one trait affected the inheritance of a second trait,
      - That is, we need to know whether they "ignore" on another when they're sorted into gametes, or whether they stick together and get inherited as a unit.
      - To do this he performed a dihybrid cross. A cross in which he looked at two traits at a time.
    - - Mendel discovered that the alleles of different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another.
- - - - Plant characteristics
        
        Plants need energy, nutrients, water, gas exchange protection from herbivores and disease and to reproduce.
        
        Photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide + water + sunlight -> glucose + oxygen
        
        Glucose is a carbohydrate (made of C, H, and
        O).Carbs are used by plants to grow, maintain
        and develop.
        
        Sexual and asexual reproduction.
      - Basic Tissue Types
        
        Dermal tissues
        
        2 types: epidermis and periderm
        
        Outermost cell layers
        
        Thick cell walls covered in waxy cuticle
        
        Protection against water loss, injury, disease
        
        Vascular tissues
        
        2 types: xylem and phloem
        
        Xylem: thick walled cells, dead at maturity
        
        Phloem: thin walled cells, living at maturity
        
        Like tubes
        
        Transport water and nutrients
        
        Ground Tissues
        
        3 types:
        
        Collenchyma: thick-walled living cells, support growth and
        development, supports and protects plant body.
        
        Sclerenchyma: cells with lignin in cell wall, dead at maturity,
        supports and protects plant body
        
        Parenchyma: thin-walled, living cells, support growth and
        development, stores carbs as starch.
        
        Meristematic Tissues
        
        An area of actively dividing undifferentiated cells
        
        Eventually develop into specialized cells
      - Monocots and Dicots
        
        Names are based on the structure of their seeds made of a
        seed coat, embryo, endosperm, seed leaf (called a
        cotyledon)
        
        Monocots have one cotyledon, dicots have two.
        
        Dicots include common plants like the daisy, tomato, maple
        
        Cotyledons in the dicots contain the nutrients that nourish
        the embryo as it develops.
        
        Monocots include grains, grasses
        
        In the monocots, the endosperm contains the nutrients
        
        Angiosperms are the class of plants that produce flowers
        which can be further divided into monocots and dicots
      - Leaves
        
        Photopigments are chemicals that absorb particular
        wavelengths of red and blue light and reflect green light.
        
        Leaf cells absorb energy from sunlight in a chloroplast which
        contains photopigments.
        
        Play role in photosynthesis, gas exchange, storage, and
        protection from predators.
      - Leaf Structure
        
        Stomata are open during the day and closed at night
        
        Carbon dioxide is used by chloroplasts to perform
        photosynthesis
        
        Stomata are little passages on the underside of leaves
        that Woody
        plants have no stomata on the upperside, herbaceous plants do have stomata on the upperside.
        
        Carbon dioxide is brought into the plant through the
        stoma, while oxygen and water are released into the
        atmosphere.
        
        Covered with a waxy cuticle that is produced by the
        epidermis. Both provide protection.
        
        Photosynthesis cannot happen at night, so the
        stomata are closed.
        
        Designed so they can capture the most amount of
        sunlight.
        
        Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells that
        are kidney-shaped, specialized epidermal cells with
        chloroplasts
        
        Make sugar and supplies all living organisms with
        food and oxygen
        
        Water moves into the guard cells during the day
        because of all the ions that move into the cells.
        
        The inside is thicker, so the outside can expand
        more, creating a hole between the two cells.
        
        Cells within the leaf are the mesophyll cells that have a lot
        of chloroplasts and have two layers:
        
        Palisade layer that are densely packed and have more
        chloroplasts
        
        Spongy layer that are loosely spaced so air can come
        in contact with the cells.
        
        Water loss from the leaves through evaporation is called
        transpiration
        
        The xylem and phloem continue from the stems into the
        leaves in special vascular bundles called veins.
        
        Monocot veins run parallel to each other
        
        Dicot veins run in a branching network
      - Leaf Structure
        
        Dry climate: thicker cuticle, stomata on
        underside.
        
        Cactus leaves are modified into spines
        
        Aquatic plants have stomata on the
        upperside for gas exchange.
        
        Onion bulb: stores water and carbs
      - Leaf Uses
        
        Provide important nutrients and food energy in
        the diets of humans.
        
        Use them for herbs and spices
        
        Teas
        
        They are nutritious (calcium, potassium, iron,
        magnesium, vitamins B, C, E, K)
        
        Use waxy cuticle for polishes, cosmetics,
        candies.
      - leaves and Chemical s
        
        Leaves produce chemicals that humans have
        used in the past and present as medicinal.
        
        Research one medicinal plant and report on what
        it is used for as homework tonight
      - Stem
        
        Main function: to hold up the leaves and conduct substances between
        the root and the leaves.
        
        Two types of stems: herbaceous and woody.
        
        Herbaceous stems are green and soft they do not survive through winters and must regrow each year. Vascular bundles with the xylem and phloem.
        
        Xylem is closer to the center, phloem is closer to the outside of the stem.
        
        Vascular bundles of the herbaceous monocot are found throughout the
        stem.
        
        Vascular bundles of the herbaceous dicot are arranged in a ring closer to the outside. They also have a vascular cambium between the xylem and phloem.
        
        Woody stems are more complex, are tough and hard, commonly called wood, and can survive through the winter.
        
        Grow thicker over time due to the vascular cambium making new xylem and phloem.
        
        Sapwood is younger xylem, conducts the water and minerals. The older xylem fills with resins, oils and other chemicals and is called heartwood.
        
        The growth of new xylem each spring results in a new layer of sapwood and an annual ring is formed.
        
        Outer part is called the bark.
        
        Protects the tissue
        
        Contains cork tissue
        
        Outer cork cells are dead and contain fats, oils, waxes
        
        Stems can also store food
      - Monocot Stem
      - Dicot Stem
      - Modified stems:
        
        Rhizomes are thick, fleshy stems that grow on or just below the soil’s surface.
        
        Tubers are stems that grow underground. They have a lot of stored food in them and have eyes that grow into buds.
        
        Bulbs are underground stems: surrounded by modified leaves
      - Human Uses of Stems
        
        Fuel: ethanol, wood
        
        Food: sugar cane, potatoes, maple syrup, asparagus
        
        Textiles: flax, hemp, bamboo
        
        Dyes: indigo
        
        Other chemicals: tannin (wood stain), turpentine, latex rubber
        
        Medicine: salicyclic acid (pain reliever from willow bark), taxol (anti-cancer drug made of yew tree bark)
      - Roots
        
        Serve 3 important functions: anchors, absorb minerals and water, and they transport those minerals and water
        
        Two main types of roots:
        
        Taproots are long and thick and have secondary roots emerging from that root. Dicots have taproots.
        
        Fibrous roots are many roots of about the same size, each with secondary roots. Monocots have fibrous roots.
        
        Another type of root called the adventitious roots are when the roots emerge from other tissues like the stem and leaves, and prop up the plant in support.
        
        Tuberous roots are a lateral root that is specialized to store carbohydrates. Example: yams, cassava
        
        Types of Tissues in Roots
        
        Epidermis is one cell layer thick and is the outermost layer of the root. It protects and absorbs water and mineral from the soil. Has specialized cells that form root hairs that increase surface area.
        
        The cortex is a layer of cells found just below the epidermis and has some cells that store molecules like starch, transport water and minerals from the epidermal cells to the centre of the root by osmosis.
        
        Cortex has a wax coating on the inner layer called the endodermis.
        
        The Casparian strip surrounds the endodermal cells, prevents water from entering back into the cortex. Minerals must be pumped by active transport into the vascular cylinder. This layer controls the movement of water and minerals.
        
        The vascular cylinder contains the plant’s conducting tissues: the xylem and the phloem.
        
        The phloem conducts the sugars from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
        
        The xylem conducts water and minerals
        to the leaves
        
        Root Transport
        
        Hairs absorb essential nutrients by active transport
        
        Water enters by osmosis
        
        This accumulation of water and minerals creates a pressure that pushes the sap up the xylem: called root pressure.
        
        Root pressure cannot account for all the movement of
        water.
        
        Stem Transport
        
        Water can also stick to itself: cohesion. Because of the small diameter of the xylem tube, the cohesion of water can result in the water column holding together continuously.
        
        There is a leaf pull or a transpiration pull from the leaves on the chain of water molecules, that keep the chain moving up.
        
        Water sticks to surfaces: known as adhesion. It sticks to the inside walls of the xylem and creates a pulling force.
        
        Leaf Transport
        
        Most water that comes into the leaf, is lost due to transpiration.
        
        Water evaporates from the leaf: the hotter it is, the more water is brought up.
        
        Vascular Tissue
        
        Xylem has two types of cells:
        
        Vessel elements are only in angiosperms and consists of many vessel elements connected end-to-end. The ends are absent or perforated. They can be next to other vessels and connect through a pit.
        
        Tracheids are much narrower and their ends are sharply angled, and looked a bit pointed.
        
        Cellulose and lignin are deposited on the outside surface of xylem cells to form rigid walls.
- - - - Anatomy: Study of the structure of an organism's part.
      - Physiology: Study of the function of those parts.
    - - A body can be described as a hierarchy from less complex to more complex.
    - - Tissue: Group of similar cells that perform specific function.
    - - Muscle Tissue
        
        Three types:
        
        Smooth muscle cells (organs and blood vessels)
        
        Cardiac muscle cells (heart)
        
        Skeletal muscle cells (voluntary movement)
        
        Able to contract and relax for movement.
      - Nervous Tissue
        
        Neurons - specialized for carrying electrochemical signals.
        
        Found in brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
      - Epithelial Tissue
        
        Covers the surface of the body (skin, organs, and vessels, and lines body cavities.
        
        Tightly packed cells that are fused together - provides a barrier for protection. Also involved in secretion, absorption, and sensation.
      - Connective Tissue
        
        Provides support, structure, defense, protection, transports materials and binds things together.
        
        Six Types:
        
        Adipose (fat)
        
        Cartilage
        
        Fibrous
        
        Loose
        
        Bone
        
        Blood
        
        A single organ may contain several types of tissues.
    - - Teams of organs that work together to perform vital body functions.
      - Organs systems will also work together to perform vital body functions.
    - - Components: Muscles and connective tissue
      - Function: Movement
    - - Function: framework of body, organ protection, and movement.
      - Components: bones and connective tissues.
    - - Function: transport, temperature control
      - Components: heart, blood, blood vessels
    - - Function: Communication
      - Components: brain, spinal cord, nerves.
    - - Function: immunity, fat transplant
      - Vessels, immune system glands
    - - Components: air passages, lungs, diaphragm, rib muscles
      - Function: gas exchange
    - - Function: regulation
      - Components: hormone producing glands
    - - Function: waste removal
      - Components: kidney, bladder
    - - Function: sexual reproduction
      - Uterus, ovaries, testes, etc.
  - - - Fat
      - Vitamins
      - Protein
      - Minerals
      - Carbohydrates
      - Water
  - - - Alimentary canal - a hollow tube from mouth to the anus
      - Accessory glands/organs:
        
        Liver
        
        Gall bladder
        
        Pancreas
        
        Salivary glands
    - - Digestion - break large nutrient molecules into monomers
      - Absorption - move nutrients into blood
      - Ingestion - bring food into the body
      - Elimination - get rid of undigested food as waste
    - - After ingestion, food is chewed (mastication)
      - Teeth and tongue work together to grind food and mix it with saliva.
      - Bolus -chewed food mixed with saliva
    - - Saliva secreted by salivary glands starts the chemical digestion of starches.
      - Saliva consist of:
        
        Water
        
        Amylase
        
        Mucus
        
        Buffers (ions)
        
        Anti-microbial compounds
      - The stomach contains gastric glands
      - Hydrochloric acid (parietal cells) - strong acid with a pH of 2
        
        Kills bacteria.
        
        Activates the enzyme pepsin
        
        Pepsin (chief cells) - enzyme that break down large proteins into smaller ones.
        
        Breaks apart cells and denatures proteins.
    - - Epiglottis:
        
        Directs food to travel down the esophagus
        
        Flap of cartilage that closes the trachea (windpipe) when swallowing.
        
        Prevents choking
    - - Move food from pharynx to stomach.
      - Uses rhythmic muscle contractions called peristalsis - keeps food from moving in one direction.
      - Cardiac sphincter at stomach prevents food from moving back up the esophagus.
    - - Three Sections:
        
        Jejunum = absorption of nutrients and water
        
        Ileum - absorption of nutrients and water
        
        Duodenum - most digestion
    - - Produces bile: Bile acts like detergents to breakup fats
    - - Stores and secretes bile produced by the liver
    - - Absorption through finger-like villi and microvilli that increase the surface area.
        
        Villi are tiny, finger-like projections with capillaries and lymph vessels for nutrient absoption.
        
        Microvilli are microscopic projections covering the surface each villi.
  - - - Ventilation and gas exchange to support cellular respiration
        
        Pulmonary Ventilation
        
        Inhalation and exhalation (breathing) - O2 rich air in, CO2 rich air out.
        
        Process in which O2 moves out of lungs and CO2 out of body cells.
    - - Chemical reaction that provides energy using oxygen and food.
    - - Contain nasal hairs and mucus to filter, warm and moisten air.
      - Contain olfactory nerve endings for sense of smell
    - - Small muscular tube
      - Common passageway for air and food
    - - Cartilage with ligaments stretched across the opening - create sounds.
    - - Made up of - 20 cartilage rings which keep trachea open and flexible to allow air to move in and out.
      - Lined with mucus producing cells (goblet cells) and cilia to trap and remove debris.
    - - Two branches carrying air to left and right lungs
    - - Smaller tubes in lungs.
      - Branch out to connect to the millions of alveoli.
    - - Pari of spongy organs made up of millions of tiny air sacs (alveoli)
      - The right lung is larger and has three lobes, the left is a bit smaller and has two lobes
    - - Tiny air sacs (1 cell think)
      - 300 million in each lung (adult range 274 - 790 million) - high surface area for gas exchange
      - Surrounded by blood capillaries: exchange O2 with CO2 from blood
    - - Large sheet of muscle located beneath lungs
      - Primary muscle in breathing
      - When it contracts, diaphragm moves down to expand thoracic cavity
      - When they contract, intercostals expand the rib cage and upper thoracic cavity
    - - CO2 in the blood turns into an acid and lowers blood pH
      - CO2 + H2O > H2CO3 > HCO3 + H
        
        Carbonic acid
      - pH sensors detect low pH
      - Message sent to brain stem (medulla) to increase breathing rate
  - - - The human circulatory system interacts with many other system.
        
        Delivers O2 and removes CO2
        
        Removes waste from cells
        
        Transports hormones
        
        Control body temperature
        
        Transports nutrients
    - - Fluid > Blood
      - Vessels > Arteries, veins, capillaries
      - Pump > Heart
    - - The average adult has about 4.5 to 5.7L of blood
      - The fluid medium through which we transport molecules throughout the body.
    - - Carry O2 (needed by body cells to make energy)
      - Mostly hemoglobin (protein + iron)
      - Biconcave shape - flexibility
    - - Fight invading bacteria, and other foreign invader
      - Infection = An increase in white blood cells
    - - Fragments of special cells in bone marrow
      - Release clotting factors to form blood clots
    - - Carry blood away from the heart
      - Walls are elastic, thick and muscular
      - Blood pressure is high
    - - Walls are thin, and have valves
      - Blood pressure is low
      - Carry blood towards the heart
    - - Walls are very think (one cell thick)
      - Increase surface area for gas and nutrient exchange
      - Carry blood from arteries to veins and every cell
    - - Functions: Pumps blood from the body to the lungs and from the lungs to the body
      - Atria - Upper chambers
        
        Receive blood
        
        Have thin walls
      - Ventricles - Lower chambers
        
        Pump blood out
        
        Have think muscular walls
      - Valves -In between atria and ventricles and arteries
        
        Prevent blood from moving backwards
        
        They make the "lub-dub" sound when opening and closing
      - Three Circulation Systems
        
        Systemic Circuit
        
        Carry blod from heart to body and from body to heart
        
        Coronary Circuit:
        
        Carry blood from heart to heart tissues
        
        Blockage in vessels cause heart attacks
        
        Pulmonary Circuit
        
        Carry blood from heart to lungs and from lungs to heart