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BIOLOGY, image, image :, image, image, image, image, image, image, image,…
BIOLOGY
GENETICS
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The sugar and phosphate form the exterior backbone of the molecule. The bases form the interior joining two DNA strands.
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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a molecule that contains instructions for making all the proteins in a cell.
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Mendelian Genetics
Alleles: Different forms of a gene. They occupy the same loci, or position, on chromosomes. E.g. purple (P) or white (p) for flower colour.
Dominant: A trait expressed preferentially over another trait. E.g. Brown fur allele (B) will be expressed over white fur (b) in mice.
Recessive: A trait that is masked by a dominant trait. E.g. The white fur trait (b) will only be expressed in the absence of a dominant trait (B).
Homozygous dominant: A genotype that consists of two dominant alleles, e.g. AA. The individuals will express the dominant phenotype, e.g. light colour.
Homozygous recessive: A genotype that consists of two recessive alleles, e.g. aa. Individuals will express the dominant phenotype, e.g. light colour.
Heterozygous: A genotype that consists of one dominant and one recessive allele, e.g. Aa. Individuals will express the dominant phenotype, e.g. dark colour.
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PLANTS
Plant characteristics
Plants need energy, nutrients, water, gas exchange protection from herbivores and disease and to reproduce.
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Glucose is a carbohydrate (made of C, H, and
O).Carbs are used by plants to grow, maintain
and develop.
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Basic Tissue Types
Dermal tissues
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Protection against water loss, injury, disease
Vascular tissues
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Xylem: thick walled cells, dead at maturity
Phloem: thin walled cells, living at maturity
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Ground Tissues
3 types:
Collenchyma: thick-walled living cells, support growth and
development, supports and protects plant body.
Sclerenchyma: cells with lignin in cell wall, dead at maturity,
supports and protects plant body
Parenchyma: thin-walled, living cells, support growth and
development, stores carbs as starch.
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Monocots and Dicots
Names are based on the structure of their seeds made of a
seed coat, embryo, endosperm, seed leaf (called a
cotyledon)
Monocots have one cotyledon, dicots have two.
Dicots include common plants like the daisy, tomato, maple
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Monocots include grains, grasses
In the monocots, the endosperm contains the nutrients
Angiosperms are the class of plants that produce flowers
which can be further divided into monocots and dicots
Leaves
Photopigments are chemicals that absorb particular
wavelengths of red and blue light and reflect green light.
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Play role in photosynthesis, gas exchange, storage, and
protection from predators.
Leaf Structure
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Stomata are little passages on the underside of leaves
that Woody
plants have no stomata on the upperside, herbaceous plants do have stomata on the upperside.
Carbon dioxide is brought into the plant through the
stoma, while oxygen and water are released into the
atmosphere.
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Photosynthesis cannot happen at night, so the
stomata are closed.
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Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells that
are kidney-shaped, specialized epidermal cells with
chloroplasts
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The inside is thicker, so the outside can expand
more, creating a hole between the two cells.
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The xylem and phloem continue from the stems into the
leaves in special vascular bundles called veins.
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Leaf Structure
Dry climate: thicker cuticle, stomata on
underside.
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Leaf Uses
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They are nutritious (calcium, potassium, iron,
magnesium, vitamins B, C, E, K)
Use waxy cuticle for polishes, cosmetics,
candies.
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Stem
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Herbaceous stems are green and soft they do not survive through winters and must regrow each year. Vascular bundles with the xylem and phloem.
Xylem is closer to the center, phloem is closer to the outside of the stem.
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Vascular bundles of the herbaceous dicot are arranged in a ring closer to the outside. They also have a vascular cambium between the xylem and phloem.
Woody stems are more complex, are tough and hard, commonly called wood, and can survive through the winter.
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Sapwood is younger xylem, conducts the water and minerals. The older xylem fills with resins, oils and other chemicals and is called heartwood.
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Modified stems:
Rhizomes are thick, fleshy stems that grow on or just below the soil’s surface.
Tubers are stems that grow underground. They have a lot of stored food in them and have eyes that grow into buds.
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Human Uses of Stems
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Food: sugar cane, potatoes, maple syrup, asparagus
Textiles: flax, hemp, bamboo
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Other chemicals: tannin (wood stain), turpentine, latex rubber
Medicine: salicyclic acid (pain reliever from willow bark), taxol (anti-cancer drug made of yew tree bark)
Roots
Serve 3 important functions: anchors, absorb minerals and water, and they transport those minerals and water
Two main types of roots:
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Fibrous roots are many roots of about the same size, each with secondary roots. Monocots have fibrous roots.
Another type of root called the adventitious roots are when the roots emerge from other tissues like the stem and leaves, and prop up the plant in support.
Tuberous roots are a lateral root that is specialized to store carbohydrates. Example: yams, cassava
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Root Transport
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This accumulation of water and minerals creates a pressure that pushes the sap up the xylem: called root pressure.
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Stem Transport
Water can also stick to itself: cohesion. Because of the small diameter of the xylem tube, the cohesion of water can result in the water column holding together continuously.
There is a leaf pull or a transpiration pull from the leaves on the chain of water molecules, that keep the chain moving up.
Water sticks to surfaces: known as adhesion. It sticks to the inside walls of the xylem and creates a pulling force.
Leaf Transport
Most water that comes into the leaf, is lost due to transpiration.
Water evaporates from the leaf: the hotter it is, the more water is brought up.
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ANIMALS
Internal Systems
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Four Types of Tissues
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Nervous Tissue
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Found in brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Epithelial Tissue
Covers the surface of the body (skin, organs, and vessels, and lines body cavities.
Tightly packed cells that are fused together - provides a barrier for protection. Also involved in secretion, absorption, and sensation.
Connective Tissue
Provides support, structure, defense, protection, transports materials and binds things together.
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Skeletal System
Function: framework of body, organ protection, and movement.
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Circulatory System
Function: transport, temperature control
Components: heart, blood, blood vessels
Nervous System
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Components: brain, spinal cord, nerves.
Lymphatic System
Function: immunity, fat transplant
Vessels, immune system glands
Respiratory System
Components: air passages, lungs, diaphragm, rib muscles
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Excretory System
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Components: kidney, bladder
Reproductive System
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Uterus, ovaries, testes, etc.
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Respiratory System
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Nasal Cavity
Contain nasal hairs and mucus to filter, warm and moisten air.
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Trachea
Made up of - 20 cartilage rings which keep trachea open and flexible to allow air to move in and out.
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Lungs
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The right lung is larger and has three lobes, the left is a bit smaller and has two lobes
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Diaphragm
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When it contracts, diaphragm moves down to expand thoracic cavity
When they contract, intercostals expand the rib cage and upper thoracic cavity
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The Circulatory System
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Arteries
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Walls are elastic, thick and muscular
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Veins
Walls are thin, and have valves
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