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history, Romanticism & Existentialism, Ancient Greek Philosophy, Early…

- - - - Government
        
        Established simply to protect property rights
        
        Social Contract
        
        Private will sacrificed for general will
      - Private Will
        
        Personal Desires
      - General Will
        
        What is best for a community
    - - Guide to raising and educating children
      - Education should take advantage of natural impulses, rather than distort them
      - Educators should create situations in which a child’s natural abilities and interests are nurtured
        
        Influenced Maria Montessori
  - - - carl rogers :warning:
    - - “Man is born free, yet we see him everywhere in chains”
    - - Humans are, by nature, social animals who wish to live in harmony
      - Hobbes = Man is hedonistic
      - Rousseau = Man is hedonistic yet empathetic
- - - - A philosopher sells his soul for knowledge of the world, but is corrupted in the process
    - - Which he decides is the expression of individual freedom
- - - - Attempts to logically prove God's existence are futile
        
        Religion requires a leap of faith
        
        Abraham killing his son at the behest of God was the ultimate metaphor of faith
    - - Believed religion should be personal
      - Bible should be read as a love letter from God
  - - - Aesthetic Stage
        
        People are open to many types of fulfilment
        
        They do not recognise their ability to choose
      - Ethical Stage
        
        People accept responsibility for making choices
        
        Yet they use ethical principles established by others
      - Religious Stage
        
        People recognise and accept their freedom
        
        They have a personal relationship with God, fulfilling their potential
- - - - Traps us in cycle of need-meeting behaviour
      - Sublimation
        
        Cycle escapable by pursuing need-unrelated activities
  - - - "Every breath we draw wards off the death that constantly impinges on us. In this way, we struggle with it every second, and again at longer intervals through every meal we eat, every sleep we take, every time we warm ourselves”
- - - - Dionysian Aspect
        
        Irrational
        
        Attracted to chaos and passion
        
        Dionysian impulses = Das Es
      - Life of Controlled Passion
        
        Das es can be harnessed by Apollonian rationality to help someone lead a good, creative life
        
        Too much Apollonian -> man without emotion
      - Apollonian Aspect
        
        Desire for tranquility, predictability, and orderliness
        
        Rational
      - freud :warning:
  - - - Due to the Enlightenment, there is no universal narrative of being
    - - There are no ultimate truths to be discovered, only individual perspectives
  - - - People who are self-actualised
      - “What is the ape to man? A laughing-stock or a painful embarrassment. And just so shall man be to the Superman”
- - - - Gods would be same race as the followers
      - Postulated if animals had gods, they would animals too
  - - - Truth depends on the Perceiver
      - Perceptions vary due to Previous Experience and Individual Differences
      - Culture shapes perception
      - To understand one's perception, one must understand the person
    - - Paraphrasing Heraclitus
      - The river is different to each individual to begin with
        
        There is no capital T truth
  - - - Nothing exists
      - If it did exist, it could not be comprehended
      - And if it could be comprehended, it could not be communicated to another person
        
        Semantics differ between individuals
    - - Although the relationship between the physical world and sense impressions cannot be known
        
        Thoughts exist not in sense impressions but words
  - - - By comparing all things considered 'beautiful' or 'just', one can determine the 'essence'
      - Essence
        
        Universally agreeable definition
        
        After this, accurate communication could occur
  - - - No objective way of determining knowledge or truth
    - - The self can be aware of nothing except its own experiences and mental states
- - - - Prisoners accept observations as reality
      - Escapee learns reality by abandoning the cave
    - - The sun = the form of good
  - - - Knowledge therefore Innate
        
        Introspection viable method of gaining knowledge
  - - - Appetitve
        
        Serves mortal needs such as hunger and thirst
      - Courageous
        
        Mortal emotions such as fear, rage, pride and love
      - Rational
        
        Immortal and once lived with the forms
- - - - Material Cause
        
        The kind of matter of which a thing is made
        
        A statue is made of marble
      - Formal Cause
        
        The particular form or pattern of a thing
        
        A statue in the form of Aphrodite
      - Efficient Casue
        
        The force that transforms the material thing into a certain form
        
        The energy of a sculptor
      - Final Cause
        
        The purpose for which a thing exists
        
        To please those who view the statue
        
        For the sake of which something exists
    - - Nature has built-in purpose or function
      - A process which keeps something moving or developing until its full potential is reached
    - - The unmoved-mover
        
        That which gives all natural things their purposes
        
        Logical necessity to set the universe in motion- not a deity
  - - - Vegetative (or nutritive)
        
        Plants
        
        Allows only growth, the assimilation of food, and reproduction
      - Sensitive
        
        Animals (not plants)
        
        In addition to vegetative functions, organisms sense and respond to the environment, experience pain and pleasure, and have memory
      - Rational
        
        Humans (only)
        
        In addition to previous functions, also allows thinking or rational thought
  - - - The movement of objects in light stimulates vision
    - - Sensory experience is a necessary but not sufficient element in the attainment of knowledge
      - Common Sense
        
        the Mechanism that coordinates the information from the other senses
        
        located in the Heart like all other mental functions obviously
      - Passive Reason
        
        Utilisation of synthesised experience
        
        Effective for everyday functioning
      - Active Reason
        
        The abstraction of principles or essences from synthesised experience
        
        The purpose of humans is to engage in active reasoning
  - - - Contiguity
      - Similarity
      - Contrast
      - Frequency
    - - Spontaneous recollection of past experience
    - - Active mental seach for a past experience
  - - - Dreams useful for making physiological diagnoses because internal sensations are exaggerated
        
        However, skeptical of prophetic ability of dreams
      - Images stimulated by internal or external events
      - Images are odd because they are not organised by reason
    - - When sensations occur, they create images that remain after sensation ceases
        
        This is the basis for memory
- - - - It takes about 1/10th of a second to shift one’s attention from the sound of the bell to the position of the pendulum
      - Attention on the bell or pendulum, but not both
        
        Perception = Automatic / Attention = Voluntary
      - Demonstrates voluntary control over attention
        
        Hence the name Voluntarism
    - - A group of individuals who share common assumptions, work on common problems, and use common methods
    - - Simple Phenomena
        
        Basic mental processes
        
        Introspection to be used
      - Complex Phenomena
        
        Higher mental processes
        
        Naturalistic Observation to be used
      - Immediate Experiences
        
        Direct subjective experience as it occurs
        
        Experimental introspection
        
        A technique to determine if someone was currently experiencing a sensation or not
    - - Sensation
        
        Occur when a sense organ is stimulated, leading to the impulse reaching the brain
        
        Intensity
        
        Loud-quiet
        
        Modality
        
        Visual, auditory, etc.
        
        Quality
        
        Hue, Saturation, Pitch, Timbre, etc
      - Feelings (Tridimensional Theory of Emotion)
        
        Accompany Sensation
        
        Pleasant-Unpleasant
        
        Exciting-Calming
        
        Strain-Relaxation
    - - Reaction time studies
        
        donders :warning: <-
    - - Higher mental processes could not be studied experimentally
        
        Reflected in human culture
      - Nature of higher mental processes to be deduced from the study of cultural products
    - - Experimental introspection > pure introspection
- - - - Discover the What, How & Why of Mental Life
        
        What
        
        Describe Mental Elements
        
        Periodic Table of the Mind
        
        Elements of Consciousness
        
        Sensations
        
        Images
        
        Emotions
        
        Pleasant-Unpleasant
        
        How
        
        How Mental Elements Combine
        
        Law of Contiguity
        
        Rejected importance of Attention
        
        Attention merely the Sensation of Clarity
        
        Something is not clear because we attend to it; instead we attend to it because it is clear
        
        Why
        
        Neurological Correlates of Mental Events
        
        Believed speculating on the mind-body problem came too close to metaphysics
        
        Concluded that the nervous system does not cause mental events
        
        However it can be used to explain some of their characteristics
    - - Elemental sensations
      - Stimulus Error
        
        ~~an apple~~ red, smooth, shiny
      - Identified over 40,000 sensations
    - - Poor interrater reliability
      - Lack of practical applicability
      - Lack of assimilation with evolutionary theory
      - Development of Behaviourism :warning: and more objective research methods
- - - - Mental operations are applied until the problem is solved
- - - - The Ontological Argument
  - - - essentially a list of pros and cons
      - Assuming that God existed, all methods of enquiry would prove God's existence
    - - Realism
        
        Abstract universals exist and what we see is a distortion of that
      - Nominalism
        
        Concepts are just verbal labels to help us organise
      - Conceptualism
        
        Concepts do not have an independent existance (as in realism), but are more than names
  - - - God = the unmoved-mover
  - - - Thinsg should be explained in the simplest way possible, extraneous explanations are ''shaved off''
    - - No need for abstract world
- - - - People's actions are guided through their own sense of virtue or guilt
  - - - Kind of solipsism but because the one's spirit is connected to God and He is all-knowing, technically the truth can be obtained via introspection
- - - - Manages the conflict between the animalistic body and the divine spirit
      - St. Paul advocates for the restriction of bodily pleasures, but sex in marriage is allowed for reproduction purposes
    - - Source of Evil
    - - Spark of God within us
- - - - Pyrrho of Elis (ca. 360 - 270 BC)
        
        Dogmatism bad
        
        Arguments for and against belief systems are equally compelling, hence belief must be suspended
        
        "No one at all could know anything at all; and with commendable consistency they proceeded to deny that they themselves knew even that distressing fact" (Barnes, 1982, p.136)
        
        Appearances
        
        Simple Sensations and Feelings
        
        Acceptable as guides for living
        
        Judgements and interpretations of appearances were not acceptable
        
        Convention
        
        Tradition, Laws, Customs of Society
        
        Go Along with Convention but do not Wholeheartedly believe
        
        Ataraxia
        
        Practicing self-control fosters inner tranquility (ataraxia)
    - - Antisthenes (ca. 445 - 365 BC)
        
        Despised luxury
        
        Condemned slavery, lived among working men
      - Diogenes of Sinope (ca. 412 - 323 BC)
        
        Took Cynicism to the extreme
        
        Lived in a clay pot
        
        Ate in the agora
        
        Relieved himself in public
      - Cynic Principles
        
        Natural is Good (Let Nature Guide Life)
        
        Animals serve as Models for how we should Behave
        
        Self-Sufficiency
        
        Social Conventions Bad
        
        No Religion
        
        Religion is stress-inducing because it requires upkeep and induces mortal anxiety
    - - Epicurus of Samos (ca. 341 - 270 BC)
        
        Based on Democritus atomism but Rejected Determinism
        
        Lowkey predicted the law of conservation by saying there is no afterlife the atoms just form new things
        
        Materialism -> Natural explanations > Supernatural
        
        Good Life
        
        Aponia
        
        Hedonism
        
        Seek pleasure and avoid pain
        
        Luxuries/overindulging leads to pain, hence the simple pleasures are the most ideal
        
        Ataraxia
        
        Tetrapharmakos (the four-fold cure)
        
        Don't fear god
        
        Don't worry about death
        
        What is good is easy to get
        
        What is terrible can be endured
    - - Zeno of Citium (ca. 335 - 263 BC)
        
        Good life
        
        Accepting one's fate with indifference, even if suffering is involved
        
        Determinism
        
        Divine Plan
        
        Everything happens for a reason
        
        Incomprehensible to the individual
        
        Created problem: how can human will be free in a determined universe?
      - Romans loved Stoicism > Epicureanism because Stoicism encouraged following law and order
  - - - Philo of Alexandria (ca. 25 BC - 50 AD)
        
        The Jewish Plato
        
        Took the bible as the start of his philosophy
        
        Dualism of Man
        
        Body is lowly
        
        Soul is fragment of the divine being
        
        God = The world of forms
        
        Condemned sensory experience a la Plato
        
        Sensory experience interferes with communication with God
        
        Truth revealed by God to souls that had purged themself of influences of the flesh
        
        Rationality irrelevant (unlike Plato)
      - Plotinus (ca. 205 - 270)
        
        Plotinus' Hierarchy
        
        the One / God
        
        Supreme and Unknowable
        
        Spirit
        
        Image of the One
        
        Part of every human soul
        
        Soul
        
        The cause of all things in the physical world
        
        When it enters something material like a body, it is a copy of the spirit which is a copy of the one
        
        Disagreed that the sensory world was repusive
        
        Still beautiful (art, nature) but simply less perfect
        
        Hypatia (ca. 370 - 415)
- - - - "Psychology has a long past but a short history"
  - - - "Spirit of the Times"
      - Sociopolitical climate
      - Technological advances
      - Economic Conditions
    - - Works of Individuals
    - - Individuals and/or Events contribute to development of Ideas
    - - Combination
  - - - Attempts to Understand the Past in terms of Present Knowledge and Standards
    - - Study of the Past with Less Focus on the Relationship Between Past and Present
  - - - George Santayana
        
        "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeated it"
    - - Important Scientific Ideas can be Rejected more than once before they are finally Appreciated
- - - - Science
        
        Developed as a way to answer questions about nature via direct observation
        
        Contrast to Unquestionable Authority
        
        Rationalism
        
        Mental operations
        
        Empiricism
        
        Sense data
      - Search for Laws
        
        Law
        
        A consistently observed relationship between two or more classes of empirical events which is amenable to public observation and verification
        
        Correlational Law
        
        Causal Law
        
        Assumption of Determinism
      - Scientific Theory
        
        Organises Empirical Observations
        
        Guides Future Observations
    - - Three Stages of Science
        
        Problems
        
        A problem is recognised
        
        This determines the observations that need to be made
        
        Conjectures
        
        Scientists propose theories to solve these problems
        
        Refutations
        
        Other scientists find faults with these conjectures
      - Principle of Falsifiability
        
        Risky Predictions
        
        A Scientific Theory Must Be Falsifiable
        
        Pseudoscience (Not Falsifiable)
      - Postdiction
        
        Scientific Theory as Provisional Approximations
        
        All Theories will Eventually be Replaced by Better Theories
        
        Science an Unending Search For Better Solutions/Explanations
    - - Paradigm
        
        Normal Science
        
        Puzzle Solving Dictated by the Rules of the Paradigm
        
        Henley, 2019
        
        “A viewpoint shared by many scientists while exploring the subject matter of their science. A paradigm determines what constitutes legitimate problems and the methodology used in solving those problem
      - Stages of Paradigms
        
        Pre-paradigmatic
        
        Lots of Competing Schools
        
        Random Fact Gathering
        
        Paradigmatic Stage
        
        One School Emerges Victorious
        
        Normal Science begins
        
        Revolutionary Stage
        
        Anomalies make Current Paradigm Untenable
        
        Whole Process Starts Again as New Paradigm is Sought
      - Popper vs Kuhn
        
        Popper
        
        Scientists as objective seekers of truth
        
        Kuhn
        
        Scientists as people operating within a culture
        
        Both Agree
        
        Importance of Empiricial Observation
        
        Assume Determinism
    - - Epistemological Anarchism
      - Scientists do whatever is required to solve problems
        
        Following a Formal System Hinders Progress
- - - - Materialism
      - Idealism
    - - Interactionism
      - Emergentism
      - Epiphenomenalism
      - Psychophysical parallelism
      - Occasionalism
      - Double Aspectism
  - - - Biological Determinism
        
        Physiological Conditions
        
        Genetic Predispositions
      - Environmental Determinism
        
        Environmental Stimuli
      - Sociocultural Determinism
        
        Cultural or Societal Rules, Regulations, Customs, and Beliefs
      - Psychical Determinism
        
        Emotional and Cognitive Causes
        
        Conscious or Unconscious
      - Nondeterminism
        
        Behaviour is Freely Chosen and Self-Generated
        
        Scientific Study of Humans Often Rejected
      - Physical Determinism
        
        Genes
        
        Environmental Stimuli
        
        Cultural Customs
      - Indeterminism
    - - Hard Determinism
        
        Causes of behaviour function in an automatic, mechanistic manner
        
        The notion of personal responsibility is meaningless
      - Soft Determinism
        
        Cognitive processes such as intentions, motives, beliefs, and values intervene between experience and behavior
  - - - Genetics
      - Inheritance
    - - Experience
      - Mind passively takes in knowledge
      - British Empiricism
        
        British Empiricists
        
        John Locke (1632 - 1704)
        
        Tabula Rasa
        
        No innate ideas
        
        Innate operations allowed
        
        Ideas
        
        A mental image employed while thinking
        
        Originate from
        
        Sensation
        
        Reflection
        
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        Quality
        
        Aspects of an object that create ideas
        
        Primary
        
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        Secondary
        
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        Simple ideas
        
        Cannot be further divided
        
        Complex ideas
        
        Compound simple ideas
        
        Endorsed associationism for connecting simple ideas, but believed active reflection was responsible for complex ideas
        
        Education
        
        Nurture > nature
        
        Learning environment should be pleasant, not aversive
        
        George Berkeley (1685 - 1735)
        
        Bundle theory (Berkeley not founder, but this is essentially what he was on about)
        
        Matter cannot be experienced directly
        
        Conscious experience = aggregate of combined sensations
        
        Individual sensations automatically combine
        
        To be is to be perceived
        
        God perceives the world, giving it existence
        
        We perceive God's perceptions
        
        Distance Perception
        
        Distance is associated with our eyes converging and diverging
        
        Contended with prev theories based on geometry
        
        David Hume (1711 - 1776)
        
        Ideas
        
        Weak perceptions
        
        Simple ideas
        
        All simple ideas were impressions
        
        Complex ideas
        
        Combination of simple ideas
        
        External world real but not directly knowable
        
        Impressions
        
        Strong vivid perceptions
        
        Laws of Association
        
        Resembleance (similiarity)
        
        Contiguity
        
        Cause and Effect
        
        Causation is a psychological experience
        
        When Y always follows X, X causes Y
        
        Logical fallacy, although somehow science works anyway
        
        e.g. Sunset causing sunrise
        
        Associations are not immutable, the mind can reorganise in any such way
        
        Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)
        
        Pessimistic view of humanity
        
        Man is the wolf to man
        
        Leviathan
        
        Social Contract
        
        People give up freedoms to a ruler in exchange for security
        
        Absolute monarchist
        
        Did not believe in free will
        
        People are motivated by hedonism only
        
        Law of contiguity -> Complex thoughts
        
        Materialist
        
        Utilitarianism
        
        James Mill (1773 - 1836)
        
        Analysis of Associations
        
        All ideas associated by contiguity
        
        Strength of Association
        
        Frequency
        
        Vividness
        
        Jeremy Bentham (1748 -1832)
        
        Utilitarianism
        
        Consequentialist ethical system
        
        Outcome of an aciton determines its ethics
        
        E.g. sacrificing one for the many
        
        Moral behaviour maximises utility
        
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        John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873)
        
        Mental Chemistry
        
        Primary Laws
        
        The general laws that determine the overall behaviour of a system, e.g., laws of association
        
        Secondary Laws
        
        Interact with primary laws, e.g., individual characteristics
        
        The inability to study secondary laws makes science inexact
        
        Several ideas can fuse to produce a new idea that is completely different from the elements of which it is composed
        
        Empiricism and Physiology
        
        David Hartley (1705 - 1757)
        
        Nerves like taut strings
        
        Sensations vibrate through nerves to the brain, creaitng vibrantiuncles
        
        Vibrantiuncles = memory
        
        All behaviour is at first reflexive, then becomes voluuntary via association
        
        Physiology and Psychophysics
        
        Physiology: Nerves
        
        Luigi Galvani
        
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        Allesandro Volta
        
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        Charles Bell (1774 - 1842) & François Magendie (1783 - 1855)
        
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        Johannes Peter Müller (1801 - 1858)
        
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        Hermann von Helmholtz (1821 - 1894)
        
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        Ewald Hering (1834 - 1918)
        
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        Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847 - 1930)
        
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        Physiology: Brain
        
        Franz Gall (1758 - 1828)
        
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        Marie Jean-Pierre Flourens (1794 - 1867)
        
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        Paul Broca (1824 - 1880)
        
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        Carl Wernicke (1848 - 1905)
        
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        Gustav Fritsch (1837 - 1927) and Eduard Hitzig (1838 - 1907)
        
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        David Ferrier (1843 - 1928)
        
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        Phineas Gage (1832 - 1860)
        
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        Psychophysics
        
        Ernst Weber (1795 - 1878)
        
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        Gustav Fechner (1801 - 1887)
        
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        Alexander Bain (1818 -1903)
        
        Added two laws of association
        
        Compound Association
        
        Ideas compound into schemas
        
        Constructive Association
        
        Ideas can be rearranged infinitely
        
        Creativity
        
        Lowkey preceded synaptic learning?
        
        “For every act of memory, every exercise of bodily aptitude,every habit, recollection, train of ideas, there is a specific grouping, or co-ordination of sensation and movements, by virtue of specific growth in cell junctions” (Bain, 1873/1975, p. 91)
        
        Spencer-Bain Principle
        
        Spontaneous Activity + Hedonism = Voluntary Activity
        
        E.g. how a calf learns to nurse
  - - - Rationalism
        
        Mind actively manipulates and constructs knowledge
  - - - Our subjective experiences exactly match what is physically present in the external world; the world is exactly as we experience it
  - - - Logical, systematic, and intelligent thought processes explain behaviour
      - Irrationalism
        
        Emotions and unconscious decisions guide behaviour
  - - - Quantitative (:+1:)
      - Qualitative (:-1:)
- - - - e.g. God
      - Clear Ideas <- Active Reflection on Sense Impressions
  - - - Specific
      - Promote survival
      - Basic Emotions
        
        Pleasure
        
        Pain
    - - General
- - - - All Monads Seek to Think Clearly
        
        God is a Monad
  - - - Perceptions below Conscious Awareness
      - Accumulate to Cross Limen
    - - Threshold of Conscious Awareness
    - - Conscious Awareness
- - - - Things known without experience
      - Nativism
        
        Kant = A Priori Categories of Thought
        
        Descartes = Ideas
    - - Things known from experience
    - - Noumena
        
        Physical Reality
      - Phenomena
        
        Appearances
      - Kant = we cannot know noumena because of categories of thought, we can only know phenomena
  - - - Focus on the act itself, regardless of consequence
    - - “I should never act except in such a way that I can also will that my maxim should become a universal law”
      - All lies are bad
- - - - The cluster of interrelated ideas which we are consciously perceiving at any one time
      - Idea can only enter if compatible with apperceptive mass
      - Repression
        
        The force required to hold incompatible ideas in the subconscious
- - - - 7 celestial bodies
        
        Perfectly spherical
      - Planets run on concentric circles at a uniform velocity
      - Outermost circle is stationary (for the stars do not move, but the planets do
    - - Epicycles
  - - - Very mathematically complex
      - Endorsed by Church
        
        Geocentric -> puts humans at the centre of the universe
        
        Biblical verses which indicate the Earth, not the Sun, is still
  - - - Heliocentrism
    - - Observing religious holidays
  - - - Sun is divine
  - - - an Observatory
    - - Comets moved "between circles"
    - - Sun orbits the Earth
      - All the other planets orbit the Sun
  - - - Suggests elliptical orbits
      - Planets held in place by some force
  - - - Moon's surface was rough, not perfectly spherical
      - Four moons orbit Jupiter (which would make the number of heavenly bodies 11)
      - There are sunspots (the sun does not shine with uniform brightness
      - Venus has phases
    - - Had to present both geocentrism and heliocentrism
        
        but obviously dunked on geocentrism
      - Tortured into recanting heliocentrism
    - - Determine a law
      - Experimentally test the law
      - If confirmed, no further testing needed
    - - Primary qualities
        
        Absolute, objective, immutable, can be precisely mathetically described
        
        Quantity, shape, size, posiition, motion
      - Secondary qualities
        
        Relative, subjective, fluctuating
        
        Colour, sound, temperature, taste
        
        Psychology could not be a science because it could not be studied by objective methods
        
        Conciousness = secondary qualities
        
        Mathematical description a requisite for science
- - - - God created the universe and set in motion, nothing more
  - - - Reference to Aristotle's Organon
    - - Positivism
    - - Science shoudl include no theories, hypotheses, mathematics nor deductions
    - - Cave
        
        Personal biases
      - Tribe
        
        Biases due to human nature
      - Marketplace
        
        Biases due to word choice
      - Theater
        
        Biases from blind allegiance to any viewpoint
  - - - Imperfect beings could not think of perfect things, unless it was put there by God
      - Sensory information can be reliable source of information IF
        
        Clear
        
        Information represented clearly in consciousness
        
        Distinct
        
        Conscious experience cannot be doubted or divided for further analysis
        
        And also because God would not lie to us
      - Intuition
        
        Arrival at a valid idea
        
        Like God existing
    - - Automatons in St. Germain
      - Nerves = Hollow tubes containing delicate threads that connected to sense receptors in the brain
        
        Cavities/Ventricles in the brain
        
        Animal Spirits
        
        Vitalism
        
        External stimulation causes delicate threads tighten further, pulling open certain pores from which animal spirit flows
        
        Animal spirit -> muscle expands -> behaviour
        
        Nerves act bidirectionally
        
        Delicate threads taut at rest
      - Like animals
        
        Legitimised animal models
      - Basically starts S-R psychology
    - - The only thing he could not doubt was that he existed
    - - Mind housed throughout the entire body
      - The mind wills the body through the pineal gland