Lakota tribe (native American) = gender identity as Winkte. Men who adopt the clothing, work and mannerisms of females, who are accepted in their culture. Mohave Indians = gender identity as Alyha. Men who adopt a female name and identity, imitating many female behaviours, including menstruation (by cutting their thighs). The gender change is accepted in their culture through a ceremony Modern day India = gender identity as Hijra. A person born as a male who adopts the clothing, behaviour and roles of a female, and does not identify as either male or female. The commitment to be a Hijra in reinforced through ceremonies performed by the society.
Gender dysphoria (GD) - a psychiatric condition characterised by strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with one's own assigned sex. It may manifest in a variety of ways: desire to be treated as the other gender or to be rid of one's biological sex characteristics. Could include strong conviction of strong feelings/reactions typical of the other gender. (6 months for significance)
Role of genes - Gene variants that are inherited from our parents can be used to explain gender dysphoria. If the genetic information for gender development deviates from the expected development path, this can result in physical and psychological abnormalities.
Role of hormones - Exposure to prenatal hormones determine the masculinisation or feminisation of the foetus, with testosterone being produced if the Y chromosome is detected, and oestrogen continuing to be produced if not. If the foetus is over/underexposed to the appropriate hormones, this can create abnormalities in development and contribute to gender dysphoria. The brain - GD due to brain structure. The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST)- involved in emotional responses and male sexual behaviour in rats. Area in larger in men than women (around 2.5x larger and contains twice as many neurons)
Cognitive explanation - GST states that gender schemas adopted by children to develop their gender identity should be dominated by in-group schemas. According to this paradigm, gender dysphoria as a result of dual schema pathways.
Social explanation - GD is a learned behaviour due to being reinforced for cross-gendered behaviours. Usually, parents and peers will positively reinforce appropriate gender behaviours and punish cross gendered behaviours, and this results in stereotypical gender identity for boys and girls. For people with gender dysphoria, it is suggested that children have been positive reinforced for behaviours that are more typical of the opposite sex.
Psychodynamic explanation (attachment) - GD is the result of attachment difficulties before gender identity had developed. The key to GD is excessive separation anxiety. Children who experience extreme separation anxiety ‘symbiotically fuse’ their identity with the parent that they were separated from. This is an unconscious process.