gender

sex - fixed. biological status and male/female. determined by chromosomes.
gender - fluid. psychological status as masculine/femine. influences by societal norms/cultural expectations.
sex role sterotypes - shared expectations society holds about acceptable behaviour for males and females. Smith and Lloyd (1978)- when adults were presented with a baby dressed in a gender-neutral colour, the way they interact with the baby was determined by the name assigned to the baby (either a girl’s or a boy's name) showing that adults use gender stereotypes when interacting with children.

androgyny - A balance of masculine and famine characteristics in personality. Traditional views were that rigid sex roles were important to good mental health.

BEM - stated that you should adopt both masculine and feminine behaviours to suit your personality. If we deny behaviours as not being suited to our gender, we will be more likely to suffer mental health issues. sex-role inventory - self report questionaire. - 20 masc, 20 fem, 20 neutral - rate self between 1(almost never true) to 7 (almost always true) - revels either a fem, masc or androgyny gender identity

evaluation strength - since 1974 research has found a correlation between androgyny and psychology weel-being. androhyny people are more likely to have better self-esteem. witt suggests androgynous gender identity may be more beneficial to children.

  • more opportunities in careers, hobbies and lifestyle.
  • societal pressure children and adolescence face could be alleviated by a society that promotes androgyny.
    BUT
    Temporal validity- Hoffman and Borders (2001), 400 undergraduates rated the items on the BSRI as masculine or feminine- found only two terms were still agreed to be masculine and feminine.

role of chromosomes in sex - 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. pair 23 = sex chromosomes. female = xx male = xy. male sperm either x or y.

the role of hormones - gender is influenced by hormones. prenatally - affect brain development and reproductive organs.
puberty - bursts of hormones trigger secondary sexual characteristics.

testosterone (t)
role in sex - affects development in genitalia. prenatally and postnatal affects in brain development.
role in gender development - linked to increased aggression and competitive.
berenbauum and bailey n- found xx females exposed prenatally to large doese of t displayed more "tomboy" behaviour and showed greater interest in male type activities.

oestrogen - helps on the continuation of an embryo developing into a female.
role in sex - from puberty onwards, produces secondary sexual characteristics including menstration.
role in gender - linked to caregiving behaviour and irritabillity.

oxytocin "love" hormonesleads to feeling of bonding in both male and females. makes us feel content and calm and also aids with wounds healing.
t dampens the effects of oxytocin.
as its released in huge quantities during and after labour it has fulled the idea that men do not make as good caregivers as women and less interested in intimacy and closesness in a relationship.

case of Bruce Reimer - biological reductionism. assumes that this (gender) complex psychological and physiological part of our identity can be broken down to the lowest levels of explanations- genes and hormones. ignores the role of any nurturing influences such as culture and media.

atypical sex chromosomes - they occure when an individual inherits too many or to few sex chromsomes from their parents.

klinefelter syndrome - occures in 1 in 600 males on average and is characterised by an xxy chromosmes pattern.

  • typically presesnt with both physical and psychological sympotoms. e.g enlarged breasts
  • may lack typical development of facial, pubic and body hair due to extra oestrogen and low levels of t.
  • will demonstrate poorer verbal and reading kills then those without this syndrome.

turner syndrome - occurs in 1 in 2,000 females on average and is characterised by an xo chromosomes pattern

  • can cause physical differences in girls such as delayed onset puberty, underdeveloped overies leading to menstrual cycle problems and narrowing of their hips.
  • physical traits are a result of a lack of oestrogen and genetic information for typical development.
  • psychologically, they will demonstrate higher than average reading and verbal skills but may struggle to form or maintain social relationships more than those without the syndrome.

evaluation strength - research contributes to nature - nurture debate. by comparing typical and atypical chromosomes patterns, we can see the psychological and behavioural differences. can also then be inferred that there is a biological cause to these differences.
BUT
may not be valid as the relationship between chromsomes abnormalities and different behaviour is not causal. enviromental and social influences, social immaturity seen in turner syndrome may be caused by being treated immaturely by others.

cognitive explanations. kohlberg's stage theory claimed his theory is universal.
the way we think changes as we get older due to physcial changes in the brain.
with age, the brain becomes capable of increasingly complicated and abstract thinking.

stage 1: gender identity (gender labelling) around 2 years old.

  • begin to understand they are male/female.
  • identify self and others as male/female based in outward appearance only (hair/clothes)
  • think their gender can change and so can other people (grows long hair, is now a girl) and doesn't understand that gender is consistent across time and situations.
    stage 2: gender stability, around 3-4 years old
  • begins to relise that gender is constant over time.
  • children are egocentric and do not relise other people's gender is also constant.
  • children are still swayed by outward appearance
    stage 3: gender constancy, appprox 6 years
  • realise others have different point of viwes
    full gender constancy
    realise everyones gender is constant - changes appearance do nit influence if someone is male/female. conversion
  • once a child has fully developed and internalised concept of gender, they will actively seek evidence to confirm their concept.

evaluation

gender schema theory - generalised representation of what we know about gender and sterotypical behaviour.
once a child has established gender identity around the ages of 2-3 years, he or she will begin to search the environment for information that encourages the development of gender schema.

ingroup - about the gender that child identifies with. are used as a magnet to learn the roles and expectations about the child's own gender group.
outgroup - about the opposite sex. will be recognised as inconsistent with the child's ingroup and ignored or less likely to be recalled.

Children go on to develop scripts of activities and/or actions that males and females perform. Children monitor their environment for information and behaviours that are consistent with their ideas of appropriate make and female behaviour and add or assimilate the information into their thinking.

Motivated to be like ingroup and avoid behaviours of outgroup and seek information about what their ingroup does. (GST says this happens before gender constancy which challenges Kohlberg's theory)

Gender Shema theory may lack scientific credibility. Schemas are internal mental processes which make it hard to operationalise them accurately. In addition, despite describing what gender schemas are and how they change overtime, it fails to explain why gender schemas change. Therefore, this cognitive theory is not considered to be a scientific paradigm or provide clearly objective and empirical evidence for the role pf schema in gender development. LIMITATION

GST can explain why children can be very stereotypical. A key aspect of GST is that children will fail to process information which is not consistent with their gender schema. Research has found that when young children watch films which depict contradicting gender role behaviour, they tune them out. As such this will result in their schema being unchanged, as the child develops, they will begin to accommodate more information into their existing schema, and they will become less fixed. Therefore. GST can explain why young children hold such rigid beliefs about gender role behaviour. STRENGTH

psychoanalytic theory

Oedipus complex and Electra complex

Identification and internalisation - Children of both sexes identify with the same sex parent as a means of resolving their respective complex. Boys adopt the attitudes and values of their father and girls adopt those of their mother. This involves children taking on board the gender identity of the same sex parent, a process Freud referred to as internalisation. Essentially then, both boys and girls receive a second-hand gender identity all at once at the end of the phallic stage.

The explanation is socially sensitive.
It claims that to develop a clear sense of gender a child must be raised in nuclear family. This is an outdated view due to the rise in single parents and same sex parents.
The theory claims in non-traditional families would struggle to resolve their complexes and struggles with gender identity.
This is socially sensitive view fuels or justifies prejudiced treatment or people who deviate from outdated family ideals. This also means the theory lacks temporal validity.

Social learning theory of gender - Modelling within SLT means that a child may identify or idolise someone such as their parent and then imitates that behaviour.

gender is learned in the same way- we learn gender appropriate behaviours from models.
Model= anyone who an individual may identify with, be attracted to or idolise. (parents, peers, celebrities)
An individual can learn gender roles from models directly or indirectly.

Role of direct reinforcement - Children are more likely to be reinforced (praised/encouragement) for demonstrating gender appropriate behaviour. Example: boys may be encouraged to be active, assertive and engaged in rough and tumble play.
Role of indirect (vicarious) reinforcement
If the consequences of another person's behaviour are favourable, that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by a child. Example: If a girl sees her mother complimented for looking pretty when she wears make up and a dress, the little girl may try to imitate this behaviour

Supporting evidence from controlled research- Smith and Lloyd (1978). when adults were presented with a baby dressed in a gender-neutral colour, the way they interact with the baby was determined by the name assigned to the baby (either a girl’s or a boy's name). They were more likely to give a boy a hammer shape rattle. When the same baby was dressed as a girl, they were more likely to be handed a cuddly doll, told they were “pretty” and reinforced for being passive.
BUT
This research does not show a causal link between differential reinforcement and gender differences in behaviour. Suggest biology is ignored

role of media and culture on gender devlopment

The media can provide role models with whom children may identify and want to imitate.
Media provide rigid stereotypes - Media provide rigid stereotypes

Furnham et al - Examples of stereotypes The buffoon (boys) - Males who are ridicules for performing stereotypically feminine behaviours such as crying, parenting and being sensitive. the consequence is that Boys learn that if they imitate these behaviours, they will be ridiculed, they vicariously learn that these are not behaviours that boys do.
Action hero (boys) - Males are praised, rewarded and glorified for being strong, aggressive and tough. the consequence of this is that Boys vicariously learn that these behaviours are acceptable for them to perform and are part of being a male.
The mother (girls) - Females are repeatedly shown to be the nurturer and the most emotional and neurotic parent. the consequence of this is that Girls vicariously learn that these behaviours are typical and acceptable for girls to perform.

Increase self-efficacy McGhee (1980)- children who have more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display more gender stereotypical views in their behaviour and attitudes. It is argued that the media does more than just confirm what the gender roles are but may also give information to males and females about the likely success of engaging in these behaviours.

Cross cultural research compares cultures on order to research similarities and differences and helps to enhance our understanding of the causes of human behaviour.

Lakota tribe (native American) = gender identity as Winkte. Men who adopt the clothing, work and mannerisms of females, who are accepted in their culture. Mohave Indians = gender identity as Alyha. Men who adopt a female name and identity, imitating many female behaviours, including menstruation (by cutting their thighs). The gender change is accepted in their culture through a ceremony Modern day India = gender identity as Hijra. A person born as a male who adopts the clothing, behaviour and roles of a female, and does not identify as either male or female. The commitment to be a Hijra in reinforced through ceremonies performed by the society.

Gender dysphoria (GD) - a psychiatric condition characterised by strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with one's own assigned sex. It may manifest in a variety of ways: desire to be treated as the other gender or to be rid of one's biological sex characteristics. Could include strong conviction of strong feelings/reactions typical of the other gender. (6 months for significance)

Role of genes - Gene variants that are inherited from our parents can be used to explain gender dysphoria. If the genetic information for gender development deviates from the expected development path, this can result in physical and psychological abnormalities.
Role of hormones - Exposure to prenatal hormones determine the masculinisation or feminisation of the foetus, with testosterone being produced if the Y chromosome is detected, and oestrogen continuing to be produced if not. If the foetus is over/underexposed to the appropriate hormones, this can create abnormalities in development and contribute to gender dysphoria. The brain - GD due to brain structure. The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST)- involved in emotional responses and male sexual behaviour in rats. Area in larger in men than women (around 2.5x larger and contains twice as many neurons)

Cognitive explanation - GST states that gender schemas adopted by children to develop their gender identity should be dominated by in-group schemas. According to this paradigm, gender dysphoria as a result of dual schema pathways.

Social explanation - GD is a learned behaviour due to being reinforced for cross-gendered behaviours. Usually, parents and peers will positively reinforce appropriate gender behaviours and punish cross gendered behaviours, and this results in stereotypical gender identity for boys and girls. For people with gender dysphoria, it is suggested that children have been positive reinforced for behaviours that are more typical of the opposite sex.

Psychodynamic explanation (attachment) - GD is the result of attachment difficulties before gender identity had developed. The key to GD is excessive separation anxiety. Children who experience extreme separation anxiety ‘symbiotically fuse’ their identity with the parent that they were separated from. This is an unconscious process.