Governance of Antarctica

International laws

Antarctic Treaty System (1959):

  • 53 country's signatures
  • Antarctica should only be sued for peaceful reasons - no army bases/ weapons
  • countries should cooperate on scientific research, share plane, results etc
  • should remain in the global commons, individual countries cannot claim it

Under ATS all bases can be inspected at any time but they don't occur very often

Madrid Protocol signed in 1991 and added to the Antarctic Treaty - focus on protecting Antarctica's fragile environment:

  • bans all mining
  • rules to protect plants and animals, regulate waste disposal, prevent pollution
  • an EIA is required for any new activities

no system to ensure all countries abide by the rules - any disputes are encouraged to be solved through negotiation ot go to the ICJ

addressing problems can be slow/ difficult as all countries involved must reach a consensus over all decisions made e.g. 2012-16 plans for Antarctic marine reserves repeatedly failed due to opposition from Russia & Ukraine

Global Institutions

International Whaling Commission (IWC)

responsible for regulating whaling & ensuring whale populations stay at a sustainable level

1994: IWC set up a whale sanctuary in the Southern Ocean

limiting numbers & size of whales that can be taken, prohibiting capture of suckling calves/ females with calves

Criticised IWC for not properly monitoring the number of whales in the sanctuary

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

a UN agency, responsible for reporting activity in Antarctica to UN

programme in Antarctica is run by Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)

CCAMLR aims to stop illegal fishing & conserve the Antarctic ecosystem by setting up protected areas for example

However it's effectiveness is limited by individual countries protecting their own interests:

  • took 5 years for CCAMLR to negotiate the creation of a marine protected area (MPA) in the Ross Sea
  • it also hasn't reduced fishing quotas in this area

Whaling Moratorium

introduced in 1982 by the IWC

banned all commercial whaling around the world, including Antarctica & believed to have helped whale populations here increase

success is monitored by estimating whale populations based on sightings & modelling

US and AUS believe there should be a better monitoring system:

  • registering all whaling boats with the IWC
    • placing independent observers on all whaling boats
    • Japan and Norway say IWC does not have authority to do this

2018: Japanese whalers killed over 300 Antarctic whales for 'scientific research' despite the ruling

Greenpeace (NGO) have said the Moratorium is poorly enforced

NGOs monitor and enforce rules

they don't act on behalf of a particular country so are well positioned to monitor who is following the rules

Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC)

formed in 1978 by a group of NGOs concerned some countries planned to make it legal to search for oil, gas & minerals in Antarctica

successfully campaigned to make ATS meeting more transparent with NGOs allowed to attend

also monitors effect of climate change on Antarctica:

  • checks melting ice and sea levels
  • campaigns to reduce g.h.g. emissions
  • monitors environmental changes
  • monitors whether countries follow 1991 Madrid Protocol
  • protects Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary from commercial whaling
  • ensures krill populations are sustainable

Global impacts of Antarctica's governence

monitoring of melting ice has informed efforts to combat climate change - effects daily lives - renewable energy, conserving electricity, less car usage

can slow down short-term economic growth - limits on whaling/ fishing limits amount a country can sell - but future resources are secure

allows greater scientific exploration - people from all over the world can conduct research, collaborate & pool resources

allows tourists to visit safely & securely

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