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Language Diversity and Change ( P2 ) - Coggle Diagram
Language Diversity and Change ( P2 )
Structure + Timings
Timing
– 45 minutes writing your Section A answer
– 15 minutes preparing the material for Section B
– 45 minutes writing your answer to Question 3
– 45 minutes writing your answer to Question 4.
Question 1 - 30 marks
Question 2 - 30 marks - Social Groups Language Change or Diversity
Question 3 - 40 marks evaluate the discourse of a texts
Question 4 - 30 marks opinion editorial on the texts - using proper newspaper style
Social Groups
Gender
Dominance Model - one gender dominates another's language
Fishmann
- Focusing on tag questions whilst listening to 52 hours of conversation between US young couples, Fishman found that women used tag questions X4 than men. this shows that men dominate conversation and women do the conversational shitwork
Zimm and West -
Ratio of 46 male interruptions to 2 female interruptions. This led them to believe that men like to be in charge of conservation and women tend to be submissive.
Beattie
- He found that women and men interrupted with more or less equal frequency (men 34.1, women 33.8) - so men did interrupt more, but by a margin so slight as not to be statistically significant.
O'Barr and Atkins
- Looked at courtroom cases and witnesses' speech. Studied courtroom cases for 30 months, observing a broad spectrum of witnesses. They examined the witnesses for the ten basic speech differences between men and women that Robin Lakoff proposed. found that women's language was a result of powerlessness
Deficit Model - suggests women's language is lacking or deficient
Robin Lakoff's
features of Women's Language Evidence that female language is weaker: indirect requests, apologetic forms, hyper-correct grammar, hedges, empty adjectives etc..
Difference Model - suggests neither gender is dominant
Deborah Tannen Differences -
Status V Support
Conflict vs Compromise
Independence vs Intimiacy
Advice vs Understanding
Information v feelings
Orders vs Proposals
Diversity Model - Sex has no influence on language, society is the reason for differences
Deobrah Cameron
-
Believes that stereotypes shape gender differences.She moved away from categorising male and female speech as polarised and driven by biological differences. She focussed on how speakers construct gender identities for themselves, which may either draw on or challenge stereotypes. The idea that gender is something that people deliberately 'do' as a way to project their identity.
Region
Petyt
Research into 'h' dropping in Bradford.
Found a non-Standard English and class positive correlation.
Upper middle-class 'h' dropped 12% of the time, lower working class 93%
Class
Eckhert
Jocks: people who participated in school life, predominantly middle class kids Jocks used less vernacular forms and conformed to standard english
Burnouts: pupils that refused to take part in school activity they comformed to vernacular forms
Bearison
Position oriented(working class)
Person oriented (middle class)
Ethnicity
Occupation
Wenger
Communities of practice = Groups share a concern or passion for something they do and do it better as they interact
Swales
- Discourse Communities
Common Goals
Communicate internally
Specialist Lexis
Possess a required level of skill and knowledge to partake
Koester
As well as the idea of power both within and beyond organisations, some researchers have pointed out the way in which employees support each other in tasks.
Shows how important phatic talk is in getting jobs done. Workers need to establish interpersonal relationships and have interactions which are not work related.
Drew and Heritage
They suggested that members of a discourse community share inferential frameworks with each other, consisting of implicit ways of thinking, communicating and behaving. They also suggested that there are strong hierarchies of power within organisations, with asymmetrical relationships marked by language use. in the workplace conversations are goal-orientated
Grice's Cooperative Principle and Maxims
The theory attempts to describe how people behave all people make assumptions about what is being said regarding:
Quality is it true?
Quantity
Relation is it relevant
Manner is it not ambiguous
Sacks Et Al
In institutional Talk Conversations are dominated by powerful participants
Brown and Levinson's Politeness Theory -
Positive face - wanting to be liked
Negative Face - wanting to act unimpeded
Face Threatening Act: an utterance which damages your positive or negative faces
Hypertension/Hypotension - reason for prescriptivism + power assertion from doctors when speaking to patients
Coversationalisation -
one speaker gives little or no opportunity for others to take a turn usually a conversation involves turn taking so a speaker can show dominance by not
Age
Giles Accomodation Theory
people will accomodate their language in accordance with who theyre speaking to i.e elderspeak for old people or CDS for children
Links
Convergeance
Divergeance
Eckhert - types of age
Chronological age
Biological age
Social age
Gary Ives
-
100% of 17 year olds believe age changes language
Cheshire
People develop language based on life events ( eg getting arrested, getting married)
Stenstrom
Identified a range of features of teen talk including: irregular turn taking, overlaps, abbreviations, verbal duelling, taboo, code switching and slang.
World Englishes
Models
Kachru
Strevens
McArthur
Schneider
Modiano
Strevens
made the first attempt, showing english as a family tree, it inaccurately implied that many englishes came directly from englishes
Kachru
proposed three circles ranking English speakers in order of proficiency - bad as it implied some english varieties were worse
Mcarthur's
circular model was much more equal presenting englishes in a wheel and organising them into 8 regions
Modiano
- model of international language suggests english is the central core, but ignores the impact that other variesties have on each other
Schneider
- concieved 5 stages to english being adopted into countries
english brought into a country, bilingual community emerges as a result
english begins to have more influence and two varieties emerge, the settler and indigenous variety
The gap between the two varieties starts to shift and they become similar
the new variety is accepted as the local norm, moving towards a linguistic homogeneity
the new variety reflects local culture and identity
Ideas/ Attitudes
Diaspora - the dispersal of English
the first diaspora was US, Canada, Australia, and NZ
2nd was in africa, south africa and south asia
1.5 billion english
Pidgin - born out of the need of people who dont share a language to communicate
Creole - forms when a pidgin develops - its vocabulary expands and its grammar becomes more established. People begin to adopt it as an L1 language
Language Change
Descriptivism
Prescriptivist Attitudes stand proxy for a much more comprehensive set of attitudes closely linked to authoritarianism -
Milroy
Prescriptivists have a tendency to describe things as they should be, not as they actually are -
Trask
Prescriptivism is the conscious attempt to control or regulate language to enforce percieved norms -
Millar
The history of prescriptions is in part a history of bogus rules, superstitions, half-baked logic and unhelpful lists. But it is also a history of attempts to make sense of the world. -
Hitchings
Prescriptivism
"Sensible Prescriptivism ought to be part of any education" -
Noam Chomsky
Swift
- complained that contractions were corrupting english despite going out of fashion are more popular now
Caxton
- certainly it is hard to please every man by cause of diversity
Reason for Language Change
Globalisation
Innovation
New Purposes
Saxon / Jute Invasions
Influence of the Empire
Influence of the Renaissance
Halliday's Functional Theory
- language changes to better suit our needs
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
- structure of language massively influences the modes of thought and behaviour characteristic of culture, different languages have different ways of thinking in accordance with inner monologues
Hockett's Random Fluctuation Theory
- random errors in language drive change
Chen's S Curve Model of Change
- shows that change is slow at first but rapidly expands before slowing down again. explains that early-users are instrumental to language change
Dates -
Old English 449 - 1100
Middle English 1100 - 1500
Early Modern English 1500 - 1800
Late Modern English 1800 - present day
William Caxton 1490s
- introduced the printing press to england
Samuel Johnson
- created the first dictionary of english
Robert Lowth
- published the first english grammar book
Aitchison's Metaphors
- just an observation of prescriptivist attitudes, do not use it to argue in favour of it -
Crumbling Castle view
Damp Spoon Syndrome
Infectious DIsease assumption
Singlish
- prime minister implemented a campaign to reduce the use of singlish in favour of signaporean english
Polari
-
Example of language which doesnt correspond to typical models of change, used deliberately to seperate and communicate in secret like a code
Patois
-
example of the identity counter culture + influence of globalisation and immigration on change
Common Discourses to write about in Q3
Politics
Casual Conversation
Gender expectations
Preconceived Stereotypes in general
prescriptivism/ laziness / decay
folk-linguistics - ideas with no academic research behind them created by made-up stereotypes
radio-stations upholding the use of RP
John Reith of the BBC- made people wear a dinner suit when reading the news, as it made people sound more precise.