Genetic engineering by Mario Ordóñez "132"
Introduction to genetic engineering
From the lab to you
Genetic engineering today
Working with genes for a living
Genetic engineering is altering an organism's DNA to create desired traits. It is used in agriculture, medicine, industry, and environmental conservation.
Genetic manipulation has ancient roots and has evolved through key scientific discoveries, such as Mendel's pea plant experiments and the elucidation of DNA's structure by Watson and Crick.
Fundamentals of genetics
Gregor Mendel's contributions
DNA structure
Chromosomes and genes
Experiment with peas and 3 Mendel's laws
Mendel's First Law (Law of Segregation): Each organism has two alleles for each trait, and these alleles separate during the formation of gametes (sperm or eggs), ensuring that each gamete carries only one allele for each trait.
Mendel's Second Law (Law of Independent Assortment): Genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes, leading to a variety of genetic combinations.
Mendel's Third Law (Law of Dominance): When two different alleles for a single trait are present, one (the dominant allele) can mask the expression of the other (the recessive allele).
Francis Crick and James Watson
They discovered the DNA structure
Double helix structure, this was important to understand genes
DNA, RNA and enzymes
DNA is important to save traits
RNA transports genetic code
Enzymes regulate cell functions
Robert Holley's Discovery of RNA Sequencing
Frederick Sanger's DNA Sequencing
Early genetic engineering experiments
Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer's Contributions
Transfer of Genes between Organisms
Production of Transgenic Organisms
Applications of genetic engineering
Medicine Production (Insulin)
Creation of Transgenic Animals
Research in Gene Function and Disease
Human Genome Project and Its Implications for Medicine
Genetic engineering today involves directly altering the genes of organisms to achieve desired traits. This technology has enabled the creation of new varieties of crops and animals, the development of biofuels, and advances in medicine.
Applications in various fields
Agriculture
Biofuels
GMOs and food supplies
Cloning
Medicine
Arctic Apple: Scientists modified apples to prevent them from browning by shutting off a gene responsible for the production of a browning protein.
Innate Russet Burbank Potato: Genetically engineered to resist bruising, reducing waste.
Prevalence: Almost all soybeans and corn grown in the U.S. are genetically modified. These crops are used in various products found in grocery stores.
Benefits: GMOs can make crops easier to grow, reduce the need for chemicals, and allow for higher yields.
Process: Cloning involves creating an organism using genetic material from another organism, resulting in an almost identical copy.
Examples: Dolly the sheep was the first mammal cloned from an adult animal’s DNA in 1996. Cloning has since been applied to several animals, including cattle for quality meat production
From Plants: Scientists have developed methods to alter bacteria to convert more plant sugars into energy, reducing the cost of biofuel production.
From Algae: Genetically modified algae can produce biofuel oil, potentially providing an alternative to fossil fuels.
Plant-Based Medicines: Genetically modified plants like tobacco have been used to produce medicines.
Transgenic Animals: Goats have been genetically altered to produce antithrombin, a protein used to prevent blood clots, in their milk.
Controversies and ethical concerns
Health and Safety:
Concerns about the potential health risks of GMOs, including allergies.
Ethical issues surrounding animal cloning and the potential suffering of cloned animals.
Environmental Impact:
Debates over the long-term effects of genetically modified crops on ecosystems.
The potential for cloned animals to suffer from genetic defects and diseases.
Labelling and consumer choice
Calls for clear labeling of GMO foods to allow consumers to make informed choices.
Conservation and future prospects
Conservation Efforts
De-Extinction:
The Frozen Zoo
Cloning Endangered Species: Efforts to clone endangered species to prevent extinction.
Facilitated Adaptation: Introducing genes from related species to help endangered animals adapt to changing environments.
Potential: Discussions about using preserved cells to clone extinct species, like the woolly mammoth.
Challenges: The feasibility of creating true clones from extinct species’ DNA remains uncertain.
San Diego Zoo Initiative: The Frozen Zoo stores genetic material from endangered species for future use in conservation efforts.
Successes: Cloning endangered species like the gaur and banteng from stored cells.
CRISPR-Cas9
Gene Editing: This technique allows precise editing of genes, making genetic engineering faster, easier, and cheaper.
Applications: Potential uses include treating genetic diseases, altering mosquito DNA to prevent disease transmission, and managing invasive species.
Natural and Synthetic Rubber Production
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Examples: Dandelions produce a rubber-like substance, and genetic modifications could make them a viable rubber source.
Method: Companies modify bacteria to turn plant sugars into rubber, creating a renewable and eco-friendly source.
Description: Scientists are developing rubber from plants to replace oil-based rubber.
The Scientists of Genes and DNA
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Role: Scientists in biotech work in universities, government, and private companies, focusing on gene modification and DNA research.
Specializations: Includes gene and heredity experts, biochemists, microbiologists, and molecular biologists.
Educational Path: Typically requires a PhD and continuous learning to keep up with new discoveries.
From the Classroom to a Career
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Education: Involves many years of college, often culminating in a PhD.
Research: Students conduct research alongside experienced scientists and continue learning throughout their careers.
Career Paths: Include research, lab assistance, biotech business roles, and more.
Medical Scientists
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Focus: Develop ways to cure diseases using traditional and genetic engineering methods.
Qualifications: Most have a PhD, some are also medical doctors.
Work Environment: Varies from universities to biotech companies, focusing on disease treatment and DNA-based therapies.
Molecular Geneticists and Cytogeneticists
Molecular Geneticists: Study the details of DNA and RNA to understand gene functions and mutations.
Cytogeneticists: Focus on chromosomes, often testing for genetic diseases in unborn and newborn babies.
Genetic Engineers
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Role: Work on adding or removing DNA sequences to create GMOs and biotech products.
Fields: Include biochemistry, cell biology, and molecular biology.
Applications: Modify plants for disease resistance and alter viruses for medical treatments.
Comparative Geneticists
Focus: Study the genes of multiple species to understand differences and similarities.
Applications: Compare genes within and between species to study evolutionary changes and gene functions.
The Artistic Side of Genetics
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DNA Models: Watson and Crick created a double helix DNA model, now displayed at London’s Science Museum.
DNA Origami: Scientists fold DNA into shapes like smiley faces and snowflakes for microscopic art and potential medical applications.
DNA Art: DNA11 creates custom art based on customers' DNA, blending science and art.
Forensic DNA Analysts
Role: Use DNA evidence to solve crimes and settle legal issues.
Tools: Utilize biotechnology advancements for accurate DNA identification in criminal investigations.
Biotechnology Jobs and People
Clinical Ethicists: Address the ethical implications of genetic modification processes and products.
Genetic Counselors: Help individuals understand genetic risks and provide support for genetic disease diagnoses.
Cancer treatment
Recombinant DNA medicine
Historical context and continuous research
Personalized medicine and future directions
Feeding the world
Sustainability and forensics
Cancer, a complex and deadly disease, arises when various factors, including genetic mutations, cause certain cells to grow uncontrollably and damage surrounding healthy cells. Researchers are constantly seeking genetic medicines and techniques to combat cancer. The National Cancer Institute, for instance, has developed a treatment for kidney cancer that involves modifying a patient's white blood cells with a virus carrying a gene to inhibit cancer cell growth.
Creating new medical treatments is a lengthy process involving many scientists. The development of Herceptin, a drug for breast cancer, is a prime example. Genentech, a pioneer in genetic engineering, discovered that certain genes regulate cell growth. Oncologists collaborated with Genentech scientists to identify the HER2 gene, linked to aggressive breast cancer, and developed antibodies to target it. This required creating mouse antibodies and then combining them with human antibodies to prevent rejection by the patient’s immune system.
Recombinant DNA technology, first developed by Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer, combines DNA from different organisms. Genentech used this technology to create human insulin from bacteria in 1978, revolutionizing diabetes treatment. Today, recombinant DNA is used to produce various medicines, including interferons and blood clot treatments, making these drugs more accessible and less likely to cause allergic reactions.
Clinical trials and testing
Before any new medicine can be approved, it must undergo rigorous clinical trials to ensure its safety and efficacy. This process involves multiple phases with increasing numbers of volunteers. For Herceptin, trials began in 1992 and involved nearly 1,000 breast cancer patients over seven years. Despite challenges, such as potential heart problems when combined with other drugs, Herceptin was ultimately successful and received fast-track approval from the FDA.
The Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, a significant center for genetics research, has been pivotal in understanding genes and cancer. Researchers there have contributed to breakthroughs in genetics since the early 1900s. Notable scientists like Barbara McClintock and James Watson have conducted influential research at the lab.
Herceptin is an example of personalized medicine, which tailors treatments to individual genetic profiles. This approach is becoming increasingly feasible due to advances in genetic engineering. Future research aims to discover more disease-causing genes and develop targeted drugs. Genetic engineering also promises advancements in detecting hard-to-find diseases and producing sustainable resources, such as genetically modified crops and alternative fuels.
Genetic engineering extends beyond medicine to address global food security. GMO crops designed to resist diseases and pests are crucial for feeding the growing population. Innovative solutions, like genetically modified yeast producing milk-like beverages, could reduce the resources needed for traditional agriculture.
Biotechnology will play a vital role in sustainability by reducing resource consumption and developing renewable sources. Additionally, genetic research may enhance forensic science, using the unique DNA of organisms in each person's body for identification purposes, similar to current fingerprint and DNA analysis.
Career stats
Biochemists, Biophysicists, and Geneticists
Details
Median Annual Salary (2012): $81,480
Number of Jobs (2012): 29,200
Projected Job Growth (2012–2022): 19%, faster than average
Projected Increase in Jobs (2012–2022): 5,400
Required Education: At least a bachelor’s degree; research scientists usually have doctorate degrees
License/Certification: None
Biomedical Engineers (Includes Genetic Engineers)
Details
Median Annual Salary (2012): $86,960
Number of Jobs (2012): 19,400
Projected Job Growth (2012–2022): 27%, much faster than average
Projected Increase in Jobs (2012–2022): 5,200
Required Education: At least a bachelor’s degree; research scientists need advanced degrees, and some also become medical doctors
License/Certification: State licensing required if serving as a medical doctor
Microbiologists (Includes Molecular Biologists)
Details
Median Annual Salary (2012): $66,260
Number of Jobs (2012): 20,100
Projected Job Growth (2012–2022): 7%, slower than average
Projected Increase in Jobs (2012–2022): 1,400
Required Education: At least a bachelor’s degree; research scientists usually have doctorate degrees
License/Certification: Usually only required for clinical microbiologists