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Biology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - How does the small intesitne increase the reate of movement accross the membrane
        
        the epitheliyn gas alot of microvilli which provide a large surface area for the absorption
        
        the epithelium has a lot of carrier and channel proteins for diffusion and active transport
      - what is the role of diffusion in absorbtion
        
        the greater the concentration of glucose and amino acids mean for faster absorption
        
        Respiration means uses glucose and produces ATP which allows for a concentration gradient.
        
        This increases the rate of movement by facilitated diffusion.
      - why do we need active transport in absorbtion
        
        without active transport , the concentration on either side of the ileum would be the same as the diffusion would mean it would reach equilibrium
      - Co transport of glycose and amino acids
        
        2 - there is a higher concentration of sodium ions i the ileum of the intestines than the epithelial cells.
        
        3 - Na will enter via facilitated diffusion down the concentration gradient.
        
        1 - Na/H is actively transported out of the epithelium.
        
        4 - cotransport carries glycose along in with sodium and glucose enters the blood via facilitated diffusion
    - - What are the differences between active and passive transport
        
        Metabolic energy from ATP is needed , substances move against the concentration gradient , carrier protein molecules are involved and is a selective process.
      - Process
        
        3 - ATPase regeon then catalyses down the break down of ATP to ADP and PI
        
        4 - energy is then released , causing a confromental change.
        
        2 - ATP binds to a specific binding site on and inside the cell
        
        5 -phosphate is then release and the shape is then regained.
        
        1 - substance binds to carrier protein
    - - what is osmsosis
        
        The movement of water from a region of high water potential to low water potential across a permeable membrane.
    - - Simple
        
        when particles diffuse down and across the membrane without the help of transport processes
      - Facilitated
        
        what is facilitated diffusion
        
        the diffusion of particles assisted by carrier and channel proteins.
    - - what is the cell surface membrane
        
        A barrier between the cell and its environment and is partially permeable
      - fluid moseic model
        
        the membrane is comprised of lipids , proteins and carbohydrates
        
        the proteins are scattered through the bilayer
      - cholesterol
        
        Gives membrane stability and resists lateral movement , makes the membrane fluid and prevents leakage of water.
      - Proteins
        
        Carrier
        
        Channel
      - glycolupids
        
        lipids attached to a carbohdydrate
      - glycogroteins
        
        recognition site , helps cells attach to another cells
  - - - what are the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
        
        smaller ribosomes
        
        no nucleus
        
        cytoplasm lacks membrane molecules
        
        Murein cell wall and capsid
      - What is binary fission
        
        3 - the cytoplasm begins to divide
        
        4 - the cytoplasm divides into 2 daughter cells.
        
        2 - the cell gets bigger and the DNA moves to opposite poles of the cell
        
        1 - circular DNA and plasmids replicate
      - why are viruses non living
        
        Viruses do not carry out metabolic reactions
        
        Viruses are acellular
        
        Viruses are non living
      - What are the differences between mitosis and binary fission
        
        No centroles or spindle fibres in binary fission
        
        Cytokinesis vs splitting of the cytoplasm
        
        Different method of replication
    - - Cell fractination
        
        why is cell fractionation carried out
        
        To obtain the number of isolated organelles to study the structure.
        
        what are the solutions and conditions
        
        isotonic - to prevent organelles from shrinking
        
        bufferd to resist change in pH
        
        cold - to reduce enzyme activity
        
        What are the steps
        
        Homogenise
        
        2 - the organelles are released form cells
        
        3 - the homogenate is filtered and removed.
        
        1 - cells are broken up
        
        ultrafiltration
        
        2 - harvest organelles and remove the pellet form the supernatant
        
        3 - the fluid is at the top and remove
        
        1 - place filtrate in centrifuge and spin at slow speed.
        
        4 - Heaviest organelles are mitochondria
      - Microscopes
        
        what are the difference between optical and electron microscopes
        
        Electron microscopes have a higher resolution and produce black and white where as opitcal produce coloured images. Living and non living.
        
        why is a vacuume required for an electron microscope
        
        electrons are absorbed differently in air so it allows it to work properly. no living samples.
    - - Chromosome structure
        
        Chromosome made up of chromatids which are joined at the centromere
        
        two strands are called sister chromatids
        
        when mitosis ends , one strand will be produced at the end.
      - mitosis
        
        2 - in metaphase , the chromosomes will attach to spindle fibres.
        
        3 - in anaphase , the chromatids will be pulled to opposite ends of the circle.
        
        1 - in prophase , the chromosomes condense , get fatter and shorter and the centrioles move to the opposite poles of the circle.
        
        5 - in cytokinesis , 2 identical daughter cells are procduced.
        
        4 - in telophase , the spindle fibres degenerate
      - Interphase
        
        the DNA is unraveled and replicated
        
        Organelles replicate as well
        
        The cell caries out its function
  - - - Non specific response is immediate and same for all pathogens.
        
        Physical like skin
        
        Phagocytosis
      - Specific response is slower and specific to each pathogen.
        
        Cell mediated response involves T helper cells
        
        The humoral response involves B lymphocytes
        
        The cell mediated response and humoral response are longer lasting.
    - - Each cell has molecules on its surface which create a specific 3d structure that allows the distinction of one cell from another.
      - what things are recognised.
        
        Pathogens , self cells , toxins and abnormal cells.
      - How do lymphocytes respond to an infection
        
        are found within the blood
        
        There are many lymphocytes but very few of each types.
      - What is clonal selection
        
        an infection will occur , B lymphocytes are stimulated to divide as they have present the complementary proteins on the surface.
      - how do lymphocyte divide during clonal selection
        
        a complementary antigen binds to a complementary shaped antibody on the surface , activating b cells to divide into plasma cells and then they will undergo clonal selection.
    - - What is a phagocyte
        
        A cell that carries out phagocytosis
        
        Macrophages will detect and destruct the bacteria.
      - what is the process of phagocytosis
        
        2 - The pathogen phagocyte will then attach its receptors to the cell surface receptors
        
        3 - the phagocyte will then engulf the pathogen and form a phagosome
        
        1 - the phagocyte is attracted to the pathogen by a chemical products and it will travel towards the pathogen.
        
        4 - the lysosomes will fuse with the vesicle
        
        5 - lysosomes are released
    - - what is an antigen
        
        any part that is not recognised to be a self cell
      - What does the cell mediated response utilised
        
        t lymphocytes and involves body cells
      - what are antigen presenting cells
        
        cells that display antigens on their surface.
      - what are some examples of antigen presenting cells
        
        phagocytes , body cells , cancer cells.
      - what are the stages of t lymphocyte response.
        
        2 - after phagocytosis , antigens are taken up from pathogen and is presented on the cell surface membrane of the pathogen.
        
        4- it activates t cells to divide rapidly by mitosis.
        
        1 - phagocyte invades the body
        
        5 - the t cells are then cloned.
        
        3 - the receptors on a specific t helper cells will then fit exactly onto one antigen.
      - what are helper cells
        
        they will stimulate b cells to divide and secrete antibodies
        
        they will divide to produce cytoxic cells
        
        stimulate phagocytosis
    - - what are the steps involved in the humoral system
        
        3 - t helper cell will bind to presented antigen , activating b cells (clonal selection)
        
        4 - the b cell is activated and then divides by mitosis
        
        2 - the pathogen is endocytosed
        
        1 - the surface antigoens of invading pathogens are taken up
        
        5 - the cloned plasma cells secrete antibodies
        
        6 - memory cells are produced.
    - - What are host cells for HIV
        
        HIV will attach to CD4 t cells
      - How does HIV develop into AIDs
        
        Immune system is unable to coordinate a response and t cell count is low
      - Structure of HIV
        
        1 - attachment proteins outside a lipid membrane
        
        2 - inside the envelope is a capsid
        
        3 - lipid envelope
        
        4 - matrix
        
        5 - reverse transcriptase
      - HIV replication
        
        4 - HIV reverse transcriptase converts viral RNA to DNA
        
        5 - HIV DNA is inserted into cell DNA
        
        3 - the protein capsid fuse with the cell surface membrane
        
        6 - Viral DNA will then attach cell DNA
        
        6 - Particulates are formed
        
        1 - HIV enters the blood stream
        
        2 - a protein of the HIV enters through CD4 protein
      - Why are antibiotics innefective against viral diseases
        
        there is no metabolic processes occuring.
    - - Active
        
        Natural - when you become immune after catching a disease
        
        artificial - when you become immune through vax
      - Passive
        
        natural - when you become immune due to antibodies you receive
        
        artificial - when you become immune after being injected with antibodies
    - - Structure
        
        Antigen - variable region , hinge region , constant region,
      - Direct monoclonal therapy
        
        2 - these antibodies are given to patients and attach to the receptors.
        
        3 - they attach to the surface of cancer cells and block chemical signals leading to uncontrolled growth.
        
        1 - monoclonal antibody is produced from specific antigen on cancer
      - Indirect monoclonal antibodies
        
        2 - when antibody comes into contact with cancer cell , they will bind to tumour markers.
        
        3 - anti cancer drug then kills the cancer cell
        
        1 - an antibody drug is attached to a monoclonal antibody
      - medicle diagnosis
        
        Pregnacy
      - ELISA
        
        Direct
        
        3 - if the antigen is present , then it will be immobilised and the antigen will bind to it.
        
        4 - the well is washed
        
        2 - the detection of the antibody is attached to a complementary enzyme
        
        1 - antigens from the patient are bound in a well plate
        
        5 - positive result = colour change
        
        Indirect
        
        2 - patients plasma is added
        
        3 - a secondary antibody is added t an enzyme and they will bind. the well is washed to removed the unbound
        
        1 - HIV is bound to the bottom of the well
        
        4 - a substrate is added and results in a colour change.
  - - - What is a species
        
        A group of organism that are able to reproduce to produce fertile springs.
      - Phylogeny
        
        closer related = branched close and less related branched afterwards.
      - courtship behaviours
        
        recognise members of their species and allows attraction
      - taxonomy
        
        the science of classification
        
        dear king Philip came over great spain.
        
        Used to find a common ancestor
    - - Interspecific or species diversity is the variation in species
        
        less species mean less species richness.
      - Ecosystem diversity is the variation in the habitats
      - interspecific or genetic diversity is the variation in allels
      - what are the reasons for conserving biodiversity
        
        It will provide natural products
        
        It will conserve the evolutionary process
        
        Aesthetic reasons.
        
        Insurance
        
        Moral reasons
    - - reducing biodiversity
        
        Woodland clearance
        
        monocultures
        
        hegewors removal
      - Deforestation
        
        reduces biodiversity
        
        habitat loss
        
        more CO2
        
        depletion of food chains
    - - the frequency of observable characteristics
      - Base sequence of DNA
      - base sequence of mRNA
      - Amino acid sequence
  - - - galactose , fructose and glucose are monomers.
      - carbogtdrates are polymers which contain hydrogen , oxygen and carbon
      - glucose is found in 2 forms , alpha glucose and beta glucose
      - maltose and lactose are reducing sugars but sucrose is not a reducing sugar.
    - - formed from 2 monomers joined together and contains glyosidic bond.
      - alpha glucose + alpha glucose -> maltose
      - glucose + fructose -> sucrose
      - glucose + glucose -> lactose
    - - properties and importance
        
        large molecules so they can not leave the cell
        
        insoluble molecules so they do not affect the water potential
        
        they are compact , so a lot of energy is needed.
        
        easily broken down so can hydrolyse
    - - Amylose is long and unbranched
      - amylopectin is long and branched.
    - - structure
        
        similar to amylopectin but more branched and is compact.
  - - - why is meiosis required and why do we need to half the chromasomes
        
        during sexual reproduction , the gametes will fuse to give a zygote. they will then need to be halved again.
      - Process of meiosis
        
        meiosis 2
        
        2 - equivalent proportion of the chromatids are exchanged during crossing over.
        
        3 - homologous pairs of chromosomes are serrated.
        
        1 - homologous pair of chromosome's pair up and wrap around each other
        
        Meiosis 2
        
        2 - four cells are formed with a single chromatid.
        
        3 - in humans , these cells contain 23 chromosomes
        
        1 - chromatids are separated
  - - - ventricular styrole
        
        2 - the av valve clos
        
        3 - the semi lunar valves in the pulmonary artery and the aorta are open
        
        4 -blood flows from ventricles to the arteries
        
        1 - both ventricles contract
      - ventricular diastole
        
        1 - atria and ventricles contract
        
        2 - blood flows back from the vains.
      - ventricular stiole
        
        3 - preasure increases
        
        4 - blood flows from atria into the ventricles
        
        2 - volume in atria decreases
        
        5 - backflow is prevented
        
        1 - both atria contract at the same time
    - - what is the affinity of heamoglobin
        
        the affinity of oxygen means the tendency of the molecule to bind to oxygen.
        
        Haemoglobin changes affinity for oxygen under different conditions and this is due to the presence of CO2.
        
        At higher concentrations of carbon dioxide , the molecule will bind to oxygen and it will cause haemoglobin to release oxygen
        
        general affinity
        
        low partial pressure of oxygen and high partial pressure means that oxygen is dissociated.
        
        High partial pressure of oxygen and low partial pressure of CO2 means that oxygen is associated
      - oxygen dissociation curve
        
        2 - when partial pressure of oxygen increases , cooperative binding to haemoglobin occurs , making easier to bind.
        
        3 - when partial pressure of oxygen is high ,less oxygen will bind
        
        1 - when partial pressure of oxygen is low , less oxygen will bind to haemoglobin
      - shifting
        
        left
        
        higher affinity means more loading of co2 and less loading of o2
        
        right
        
        lower affinity for haemoglobin means less loading of o2 and more unloading.
      - bohr effect
        
        lungs
        
        affiniy for oxygen increases
        
        oxygen is readily loaded by heamoglobin
        
        partial preasure of CO2 is low
        
        Respiring cells
        
        partial pleasure of carbon dioxide is high
        
        affintiy for oxygen is low
    - - Evidence for cohesion tension theory
        
        change in diameter of tree
        
        greatest at day and smallest at night
        
        when xylem vessel is broken
        
        no onger draw up water
      - cohesion theory
        
        3 - water molecules will form a continuous unbroken collomn
        
        4 - water will evaporate from he mesophyll
        
        2 - water molecules have hydrogen bonds which will be cohesive to each other,
        
        1 - water evaporates from the mesophyll
    - - formation
        
        pumping of the heart creates hydrostatic pressure at the arterial end of a capillary
      - what does tissue fluid contain
        
        amino acids
        
        ions in solution
        
        glucose
      - how does the hydrostatic pressure cause tissue fluid to move out of plasma
        
        hydrostatic pleasure in fluid out side of capillary resists the movement.
        
        lower water potential of blood causes water to move back in through osmosis
- - - - substrate concentrate
      - temperature
      - enzyme concentration
      - pH
    - - plot a graph of rate reaction against time
      - draw a tangent at time = 0
    - - mix trypsin and volume of milk
      - mix together and start timing immediately
      - test at leasts 5 temeperatures
    - - rate = 1/time
    - - an increase in temperature means increased kinetic energy for ES complexes.
      - too much coud break the tertiary structure annd change the shape of the active site
    - - replace the enzyme solution with distilled water or boil the enzyme
    - - allergy and low change
  - - - meristem tissue
    - - 3 - Remove HCl with distilled water
      - 4 - cut the tuo of the ample and place it in a slide
      - 2 - cut the root ip with scalple and add it to HCl
      - 5 - add a few drops of indicator
      - 1 - warm HCl in warm waterbath
    - - number of cells with visible chromosomes . number of cells in samples
    - - HCl is corrosive and cut away from figures using scalpel
  - - - water will move into the plant tissue by osmosis and the plant will increase inmass
    - - 3 - place a chip in each test tube and leave them for 20 minutes
      - 4 - take out and dap excess water and weigh them again
      - 2 - cut the potato disc into equal sized chips and weigh them
      - 5 - calculate the parcentae change in mass
      - 1 - make a simple dilution of sucrose to produce 5 concentrations
    - - potatoes do not have the same starting masses
      - percentage change in mass allows comparison
    - - the concentration of solutes
    - - when the solution is isotonic
    - - to allow time for osmosis to occurs , until the plant reaches equilibrium
    - - volume of sucrose , size of chips , length of time left in solution and dab with paper towels
    - - the plant will decease in mass
    - - plot a graph if parentage change in mass against concentration and find the x intercept
  - - - temperature and concentration of solvents
    - - 2 - place each volume into different test tube with equal volumes of distiled water
      - 3 - place each into a water bathranging from 20=60 degrees and leave it in for 20 minutes
      - 1 - cut the beetroot into 6 identicle cubes using a scalple
      - filter the solution through into a covette and meaure the absorbace using a coloroimiter
    - - ethanol is a irretent and keep away from naked flame
    - - the higher the permeability , the darker red the pigment produced.
      - a colorimeter is used to determine the concentration of prgment.
    - - increases
    - - increases
  - - - measure the diameter and calculate the area of the zone of inhibition
    - - the number of bacteria killed by an antibiotic
      - very little zone of inhibition means the bacteria is likely resistant
    - - to prevent growth of pathogens
    - - to allow oxygen to enter the petri dish
    - - bacteria are bio hazzard
      - disinfectant is flamable
      - naked flame - keep away from flamable
    - - wipe down the surface with antibacterial cleaner
      - flame the wire hiip before transfereing the bacteria
      - flame the neck of any bottles
      - use a bunsen burner in the works space to draw microbes through a convection current away
      - keep vessels open for minmum time
      - Close windows and doors