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Lifespan Perspectives, ADOLESCENTS, MIDDLE CHILDHOOD, ADULTHOOD - Coggle…

- - - - Bioecological system, the internal biology of the person.
- - - - growth spurt
      - The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso.
- - - - dual processing
      - The notion that two networks exist within the human brain, one for emotional processing of stimuli and one for analytical reasoning.
  - - - dual processing
      - The notion that two networks exist within the human brain, one for emotional processing of stimuli and one for analytical reasoning.
- - - - Masturbation is common in all genders, for instance, but culture determines attitudes, from private sin to mutual pleasure (Driemeyer et al., 2017). Caressing, oral sex, nipple stimulation, and kissing are all taboo in some cultures, expected in others.
      - Even if sexually active adolescents avoid pregnancy, early intercourse increases psychosocial problems. A study of 3,923 adult women in the United States found that those who voluntarily had sex before age 16 were more likely to divorce later on, whether or not they became pregnant or later married their first sexual partner. The same study found that adolescents of any age whose first sexual experience was unwanted (either “really didn’t want it” or “had mixed feelings about it”) were also more likely to later experience divorce (Paik, 2011).
    - - menarche
      - A girl’s first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation. Pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche.
    - - menarche
      - A girl’s first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation. Pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche.
        
        The body characteristics that are directly involved in conception and pregnancy are called primary sex characteristics. During puberty, every primary sex organ (the ovaries, the uterus, the penis, and the testes) increases dramatically in size and matures in function. Reproduction becomes possible.
- - - - adolescent egocentrism
      - A characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people (ages 10 to 13) to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others.
    - - Egocentrism is one reason for rumination, which is thinking obsessively about self-focused concerns. Some adolescents go over their problems via phone, text, conversation, social media, and private, quiet self-talk (as when they lie in bed, unable to sleep), thinking about each nuance of everything they have done, are doing, might do, and should have done. Rumination in early adolescence is likely to lead to depression later on (Krause et al., 2018).
        
        rumination
        
        To think obsessively about something, perhaps to the point that a past experience or current fantasy captures the mind, making further action difficult.
      - Egocentrism creates an imaginary audience in the minds of many adolescents. They believe that they are at center stage, with all eyes on them, and they imagine how others might react to their appearance and behavior.
        
        imaginary audience
        
        The other people who, in an adolescent’s egocentric belief, are watching and taking note of their appearance, ideas, and behavior. This belief makes many teenagers very self-conscious.
- - - - secondary education
      - Literally, the period after primary education (elementary or grade school) and before tertiary education (college). It usually occurs from about ages 12 to 18, although there is some variation by school and by nation.
    - - high-stakes tests when failure has a high cost.
        
        high-stakes test
        
        An evaluation that is critical in determining success or failure. If a single test determines whether a student will graduate or be promoted, it is a high-stakes test.
- - - - knowledge base
      - A body of knowledge in a particular area that makes it easier to master new information in that area.
- - - - control processes
      - Mechanisms (including selective attention, metacognition, and emotional regulation) that combine memory, processing speed, and knowledge to regulate the analysis and flow of information within the information-processing system. (Also called executive processes.)
- - - - Differences between nations, and between schools in the United States, are most evident in the hidden curriculum — all of the implicit values and assumptions of schools. Schedules, tracking, teacher characteristics, discipline, teaching methods, sports competitions, student government, and extracurricular activities are all part of the hidden curriculum. This teaches children far beyond the formal, published curriculum that might list what is taught in each grade.
        
        hidden curriculum
        
        The unofficial, unstated, or implicit patterns within a school that influence what children learn. For instance, teacher background, organization of the play space, and tracking are all part of the hidden curriculum — not formally prescribed, but instructive to the children.
- - - - classification
      - The logical principle that things can be organized into groups (or categories or classes) according to some characteristic that they have in common.
    - - seriation
      - The knowledge that things can be arranged in a logical series.
- - - - Between these extremes lies bilingual education, with instruction in two languages, and English as a Second Language (ESL), with all non-English speakers taught English in one multilingual group, preparing them to join English-only classes. Every method for teaching a second language sometimes succeeds and sometimes fails.
        
        How should children learn the school language if they have not already done so? One strategy is called immersion, in which instruction occurs entirely in the new code. The opposite strategy is to teach children in their first language initially and then to add instruction of the second as a “foreign” tongue (a strategy that is rare in the United States but common elsewhere).
        
        immersion
        
        A strategy in which instruction in all school subjects occurs in the second (usually the majority) language that a child is learning.
        
        A major problem is that language-learning abilities change with age: The youngest children seem to soak up every new word and language like a sponge soaks up water, so immersion or ESL might succeed for them. By middle childhood, logic begins to take over, so children can grasp that each language has its own rules.
      - Overall, a child’s perception of whether or not they have low SES may be as important as whether or not they had to share a bedroom or a bed. Some adults remember a childhood rich in parental attention and listening, and only later do they realize that their diet, or clothes, or zip code indicated poverty. Perception is heavily influenced by the attitudes of their parents and teachers (McLoyd, 2019).
- - - - Cross-cultural research suggests that adult thought, at its best, becomes dialectical thought, which may be the most advanced cognitive process (Basseches, 1984, 1989; Riegel, 1975). The word dialectic refers to a philosophical concept, evident in ancient Greek, South Asian, and Chinese philosophy, that life includes many opposites and contradictions (Grossmann, 2018).
        
        dialectical thought
        
        The most advanced cognitive process, characterized by the ability to consider a thesis and its antithesis simultaneously and thus to arrive at a synthesis. Dialectical thought makes possible an ongoing awareness of pros and cons, advantages and disadvantages, possibilities and limitations.
        
        An application of dialectical thought can be seen in the idea of dynamic systems, as first described in Chapter 1. Each new synthesis deepens and refines the thesis and antithesis that initiated it, with “cognitive development as the dance of adaptive transformation” (Sinnott, 2009, p. 103).
      - Seeing advantages and disadvantages in every course of action — weighing personal and political consequences — is characteristic of dialectical thought but not of the “fast and furious” thinking that some people prefer.
        
        Jonathan Haidt has studied morals in many religions and cultures, internationally as well as among groups within the United States. He found that people think their morality is rational, but they also have deep emotional reactions that they do not recognize.
        
        Stage one: Intuitive-projective faith. Faith is magical, illogical, imaginative, and filled with fantasy, especially about the power of God and the mysteries of birth and death. It is typical of children ages 3 to 7.
        
        Stage two: Mythic-literal faith. Individuals take the myths and stories of religion literally, believing simplistically in the power of symbols. God is seen as rewarding those who follow divine laws and punishing others. Stage two is typical from ages 7 to 11, but it also characterizes some adults. Fowler cites a woman who says extra prayers at every opportunity, to put them “in the bank.”
        
        Stage three: Synthetic-conventional faith. This is a conformist stage. Faith is conventional, reflecting concern about other people and favoring “what feels right” over what makes intellectual sense. Fowler quotes a man whose personal rules include “being truthful with my family. Not trying to cheat them out of anything…. I’m not saying that God or anybody else set my rules. I really don’t know. It’s what I feel is right.”
        
        Stage four: Individual-reflective faith. Faith is characterized by intellectual detachment from the values of the culture and from the approval of other people. College may be a springboard to stage four, as young people learn to question the authority of parents, professors, and others and to rely instead on their own understanding of the world. Faith becomes an active commitment.
        
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- - - - Social connections are vital for people at every stage of life. This may be particularly important during emerging adulthood, when people have more friends, as well as more loneliness, than at any other developmental period. COVID-19 increased the social problems of this stage.
- - - - organ reserve
      - The capacity of organs to allow the body to cope with stress, via extra, unused functioning ability.
    - - homeostasis
      - The adjustment of all of the body’s systems to keep physiological functions in a state of equilibrium. As the body ages, it takes longer for these homeostatic adjustments to occur, so it becomes harder for older bodies to adapt to stress.
    - - allostasis
      - A dynamic body adjustment, related to homeostasis, that affects overall physiology over time. The main difference is that homeostasis requires an immediate response, whereas allostasis requires longer-term adjustment.
      - The processes of long-term adjustment may also be protective, reducing allostatic load. This is most evident with exercise, which lowers blood pressure, strengthens the heart and lungs, and makes depression, osteoporosis, diabetes, arthritis, and dementia (now called major neurocognitive disorder) less likely in middle age and late adulthood.
        
        Diet is the third example of allostasis that protects later life. When and how much a person eats on a given day is affected by dozens of physiological and psychological factors.
        
        bulimia nervosa. People with this condition overeat compulsively, consuming thousands of calories within an hour or two, and then purge through vomiting or laxatives. Most people who have bulimia appear close to typical in weight. However, they risk serious health problems, including damage to their gastrointestinal system and cardiac arrest from electrolyte imbalance
        
        The deadliest eating disorder is anorexia nervosa. A person might obsessively avoid food, exercise too much, and believe they are overweight even when they are far too thin. BMI is below 17 in cases of mild anorexia or below 15 in extreme cases, with any sudden weight loss or weight gain that is “less than that minimally expected” a cause for concern
        
        The DSM-5-TR also recognizes binge eating disorder, when someone periodically and compulsively overeats, quickly consuming large amounts of ice cream, cake, or snacks. Their stomach hurts and they feel shame, eventually binging secretly.
        
        Most emerging adults look attractive, as their shape is good, skin is clear, and they use many products to enhance their appearance. This affects sexual attraction and employment, both particularly important during these years.
        
        Over time, the insults and adjustments of emerging adulthood may accumulate, causing a heavy allostatic load. That makes it more likely that an older adult will develop a serious illness. The rate of aging varies, dependent on habits.
- - - - The rate of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) is rising among unmarried people in their 20s. This proliferation is particularly tragic with HIV/AIDS, which medical researchers now believe existed occasionally and locally for a hundred years.
        
        Emerging adults show many signs of cognitive flexibility — in their choice of career, in where they live, in how they dress, in what they eat. Their choices do not duplicate what their parents and grandparents did but instead reflect their childhood while moving beyond it.
      - Another problem with the sexual activities of young adults is unexpected pregnancy, which leads either to abortion or to birth of an unwanted child. Effective contraception requires planning — contrary to the idea that passion is spontaneous.
    - - Drug abuse is defined as using a drug (legal or illegal, prescribed or not) in a harmful way, damaging a person’s physical, cognitive, or psychosocial well-being. Abuse is distinct from drug use, which is merely using a drug, and distinct from drug addiction, which is when the body adjusts to a drug, requiring more to experience an effect, and causing withdrawal when the drug is absent. All three can occur at any stage of life, yet all three show developmental trends.
        
        drug abuse
        
        A condition of drug dependence in which the absence of the given drug in the individual’s system produces a drive — physiological, psychological, or both — to ingest more of the drug.
        
        drug use
        
        Use of any drug in a harmful way, damaging a person’s physical, cognitive, or psychosocial well-being.
        
        drug addiction
        
        When the body adjusts to a drug, requiring more to experience an effect, and causing withdrawal when the drug is absent.