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VERTEBRATE - Coggle Diagram

- - - - In aquatic craniates the pharyngeal clefts evolved into gill slits
      - Craniates have a higher metabolism and are more muscular than tunicates and lancelets
      - Craniates have a heart with at least two chambers, red blood cells with hemoglobin, and kidneys
  - - - Haikouella had a well-formed brain, eyes, and muscular segments, but not a skull
    - - Myllokunmingia had parts of a skull and was a true craniate
- - - - LIZARDS
        
        Lizards are the most numerous and diverse reptiles
      - SNAKES
        
        Snakes are carnivorous; some are also venomous
        
        legless lepidosaurs that evolved from lizards
  - - - Birds are archosaurs, but almost every feature of their reptilian anatomy has undergone modification in their adaptation to flight
    - - Many characters of birds are adaptations that facilitate flight
        
        Flight enhances hunting and scavenging, escape from terrestrial predators, and migration
        
        Flight requires a great expenditure of energy, acute vision, and fine muscle control
      - The major adaptation is wings with keratin feathers
      - Other adaptations include lack of a urinary bladder, females with only one ovary, small gonads, and loss of teeth
    - - Living birds belong to the clade Neornithes
      - FLIGHTLESS
        
        The ratites, order Struthioniformes
        
        Certain species of rails, ducks, and pigeons
        
        Penguins, order Sphenisciformes
      - The demands of flight have rendered the general body form of many flying birds similar to one another
- - - - Two bones that formerly made up the jaw joint were incorporated into the mammalian middle ear
  - - - MONOTREMES
        
        Monotremes are a small group of egg-laying mammals consisting of echidnas and the platypus
      - MARSUPIALS
        
        Marsupials include opossums, kangaroos, and koalas
        
        The embryo develops within a placenta in the mother’s uterus
        
        A marsupial is born very early in its development
        
        It completes its embryonic development while nursing in a maternal pouch called a marsupium
      - EUTHERIANS (PLACENTAL MAMMALS)
        
        Compared with marsupials, eutherians have a more complex placenta
        
        Young eutherians complete their embryonic development within a uterus, joined to the mother by the placenta
        
        Molecular and morphological data give conflicting dates on the diversification of eutherians
  - - - large brain, short jaws
      - forward-looking eyes closed together on face, providing depth perception
      - complex social behaviour, parental care
      - a fully opposable thumb (in money and apes)
      - have hands and feet for grasping and flat nails
    - - Lemurs, lorises, and pottos
      - Tarsiers
      - Anthropoids (monkeys and apes
        
        MONKEY
        
        The first monkeys evolved in the Old World (Africa and Asia)
        
        In the New World (South America), monkeys first appeared roughly 25 million years ago
        
        New World and Old World monkeys underwent separate adaptive radiations during their many millions of years of separation
        
        APES
        
        The other group of anthropoids consists of primates informally called apes
        
        This group includes gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans
        
        Apes diverged from Old World monkeys about 20–25 million years ago
  - - - BIPEDALISM
        
        Hominins began to walk long distances on two legs about 1.9 million years ago
    - - Upright posture and bipedal locomotion
      - Larger brains capable of language, symbolic thought, artistic expression, the manufacture and use of complex tools
      - Reduced jawbones and jaw muscles
      - Shorter digestive tract
    - - The study of human origins is known as paleoanthropology
      - Hominins (formerly called hominids) are more closely related to humans than to chimpanzees
      - Paleoanthropologists have discovered fossils of about 20 species of extinct hominins
      - Hominins originated in Africa about 6–7 million years ago
      - Early hominins show evidence of small brains and increasing bipedalism
      - MISCONCEPTION
        
        Early hominins were chimpanzees
        
        Correction: Hominins and chimpanzees shared a common ancestor
        
        Human evolution is like a ladder leading directly to Homo sapiens
        
        Correction: Hominin evolution included many branches or coexisting species, though only humans survive today
      - AUSTRALOPHITS
        
        Australopiths are a paraphyletic assemblage of hominins living between 4 and 2 million years ago
        
        Some species, such as Australopithecus afarensis walked fully erect
    - - The earliest fossils placed in our genus Homo are those of Homo habilis, ranging in age from about 2.4 to 1.6 million years
      - Stone tools have been found with H. habilis, giving this species its name, which means “handy man”
      - Homo ergaster was the first fully bipedal, large-brained hominid
      - The species existed between 1.9 and 1.5 million years ago
      - Homo ergaster shows a significant decrease in sexual dimorphism (a size difference between sexes) compared with its ancestors
        
        Homo ergaster fossils were previously assigned to Homo erectus; most paleoanthropologists now recognize these as separate species
        
        HOMO ERECTUS
        
        Homo erectus originated in Africa by 1.8 million years ago
        
        It was the first hominin to leave Africa
      - NEANDERTHALS
        
        Neanderthals, Homo neanderthalensis, lived in Europe and the Near East from 350,000 to 28,000 years ago
        
        They were thick-boned with a larger brain, they buried their dead, and they made hunting tools
        
        Debate is ongoing about the extent to which genetic material was exchanged between neanderthals and Homo sapiens
      - HOMO SAPIENS
        
        Homo sapiens appeared in Africa by 195,000 years ago
        
        The oldest fossils of Homo sapiens outside Africa date back about 115,000 years and are from the Middle East
        
        All living humans are descended from these African ancestors
        
        Humans first arrived in the New World sometime before 15,000 years ago
        
        In 2004, 18,000-year-old fossils were found in Indonesia, and a new small hominin was named: Homo floresiensis
        
        Homo sapiens were the first group to show evidence of symbolic and sophisticated thought
        
        In 2002, a 77,000-year-old artistic carving was found in South Africa
- - - - The notochord is a longitudinal, flexible rod between the digestive tube and nerve cord
      - It provides skeletal support throughout most of the length of a chordate
      - In most vertebrates, a more complex, jointed skeleton develops, and the adult retains only remnants of the embryonic notochord
    - - The nerve cord of a chordate embryo develops from a plate of ectoderm that rolls into a tube dorsal to the notochord
      - The nerve cord develops into the central nervous system: the brain and the spinal cord
    - - In most chordates, grooves in the pharynx called pharyngeal clefts develop into slits that open to the outside of the body
      - FUNCTION
        
        Suspension-feeding structures in many invertebrate chordates
        
        Gas exchange in vertebrates (except vertebrates with limbs, the tetrapods)
        
        Develop into parts of the ear, head, and neck in tetrapods
    - - Chordates have a tail posterior to the anus
      - In many species, the tail is greatly reduced during embryonic development
      - The tail contains skeletal elements and muscles
      - It provides propelling force in many aquatic species
- - - - Coelacanths were thought to have become extinct 75 million years ago, but a living coelacanth was caught off the coast of South Africa in 1938
  - - - One of the most significant events in vertebrate history was when the fins of some lobe-fins evolved into the limbs and feet of tetrapods
      - DERIVED CHARACTERS
        
        Four limbs, and feet with digits
        
        A neck, which allows separate movement of the head
        
        Fusion of the pelvic girdle to the backbone
        
        The absence of gills (except some aquatic species)
        
        Ears for detecting airborne sounds
      - ORIGIN
        
        Tiktaalik, nicknamed a “fishapod,” shows both fish and tetrapod characteristics
        
        Fins, gills, lungs, and scales
        
        Ribs to breathe air and support its body
        
        A neck
        
        Fins with the bone pattern of a tetrapod limb
        
        The first tetrapods appeared 365 million years ago
      - Amniotes are a group of tetrapods whose living members are the reptiles, including birds, and mammals
  - - - Actinopterygii, the ray-finned fishes, includes nearly all the familiar aquatic osteichthyans
      - Ray-finned fishes originated during the Silurian period (444 to 416 million years ago)
      - The fins, supported mainly by long, flexible rays, are modified for maneuvering, defense, and other functions
    - - The lobe-fins (Sarcopterygii) have muscular pelvic and pectoral fins
      - Lobe-fins also originated in the Silurian period
- - - - Mineralization appears to have originated with vertebrate mouthparts
      - The vertebrate endoskeleton became fully mineralized much later
      - Today, jawed vertebrates, or gnathostomes, outnumber jawless vertebrates
      - Gnathostomes include sharks and their relatives, ray-finned fishes, lobe-finned fishes, amphibians, reptiles (including birds), and mammals
        
        Gnathostomes have jaws that might have evolved from skeletal supports of the pharyngeal slits
        
        The earliest gnathostomes in the fossil record are an extinct lineage of armored vertebrates called placoderms
        
        COMMON CAHARACTER
        
        Genome duplication, including duplication of Hox genes
        
        An enlarged forebrain associated with enhanced smell and vision
        
        In aquatic gnathostomes, the lateral line system, which is sensitive to vibrations
      - Another group of jawed vertebrates called acanthodians radiated during the Silurian and Devonian periods (444 to 359 million years ago)
  - - - Oviparous: Eggs hatch outside the mother’s body
      - Ovoviviparous: The embryo develops within the uterus and is nourished by the egg yolk
      - Viviparous: The embryo develops within the uterus and is nourished through a yolk sac placenta from the mother’s blood
- - - - In some species, males or females care for the eggs on their back, in their mouth, or in their stomach
    - - The causes include a disease-causing chytrid fungus, habitat loss, climate change, and pollution
  - - - Amniotes are named for the major derived character of the clade, the amniotic egg, which contains membranes that protect the embryo
      - The extraembryonic membranes are the amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois
      - The amniotic eggs of most reptiles and some mammals have a shell
      - Amniotes have other terrestrial adaptations, such as relatively impermeable skin and the ability to use the rib cage to ventilate the lungs
    - - Living amphibians and amniotes split from a common ancestor about 350 million years ago
      - Early amniotes were more tolerant of dry conditions than early tetrapods
      - The earliest amniotes were small predators with sharp teeth and long jaws