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reproduction, menstrual cycle and impregnation, Process: 2 fetus…

- - - - The process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes to form a zygote (fertilised egg cell) and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other :!?:
    - - Sex cell
      - exp
        
        animals- sperm and ovum
        
        plants- pollen and ovum
      - They are different to other cells as they only have half of the chromosomes in a normal cell
        
        They only have a 23 chromosomes
        
        Normal cells have 46 chromosomes (diploid nucleus)
        
        They have what is called a haploid nucleus
      - When a female and male Gamete fuse a Zygote is formed
        
        This Zygote will have all 46 chromosomes
    - - advantages
        
        More genetic variation
        
        Diseases won't have as large of an impact thanks to variation
        
        easier to adapt to new enviroments
      - disadvantages
        
        needs 2 members
        
        takes time and energy
    - - diferences
        
        numbr of parents
        
        how offsprings are produced
        
        similarity between the parent and offspring
        
        the time and amount of offsprings
  - - - The process resulting in genetically identical offspring being produced from one parent
      - No fussion or mixing between different parents
        
        This makes the offspring identical to the parent
      - Advantages and disadvantages
        
        advantages
        
        more time and energy efficient
        
        much faster than sexual reproduction
        
        rapid increase of number
        
        disadvantages
        
        Vulnerable to change of environment
        
        diesease can affect an entire population
        
        Not easy for them to adapt
- - - - urethra
        
        A tube which allows semen and urine to get out of the penis, it is positioned in the middle and has a ring like muscle to only allow one fluid at a time
      - sperm duct
        
        The sperm passes through here to mix with fluids produced by the glands to produce semen.
      - penis
        
        Passes urine out of the bladder and allows for sperm to enter the female vagina
      - prostate gland/ glands
        
        Produces semen so sperms can mix and have nutrients
      - testies
        
        Produces sperm (male reproductive gamete) and testosterone (hormone
      - bladder
        
        stores urine
      - foreskin
        
        skin which protects the end of the penis
      - scrotum
        
        Sac which protects and maintains the testis, as well it keeps them in a slight lower temperature than body temperature
      - diagram
        
        https://cdn.savemyexams.com/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2020/01/The-male-reproductive-system.png
        
        very raro
    - - called sperm
      - adaptations
        
        tail
        
        allows it to swima dn reach its objective
        
        Contains acrosomes (enzymes)
        
        They break down the zona pelicida of the egg to fertilise it
        
        mitochondria
        
        They have lots of mitochondria to have a lot of energy
      - parts
        
        haploid nucleous
        
        mitochondria
        
        acrosome
        
        tail
      - features
        
        produced every day in huge numbers
        
        capable of locomotion
        
        small
      - diagram
        
        https://cdn.savemyexams.com/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2020/05/Comparing-sperm-and-egg-cells-illustration.png
  - - - Muscular bag with soft lining in which the zygote (fertilised egg) will grow into a fetus
    - - Ring like muscular muscle to keep the baby in place in the uterus, connects the vagina and the uterus
    - - Contains egg (female gamete) which will get released in the menstrual cycle
    - - where urine is stored
    - - Connects the ovary and the uterus, filled with ciliated cells to move the egg
    - - tube which urine passes through to be released
    - - Muscular tube in which the penis is deposited in sexual intercourse and sperm is released
    - - https://cdn.savemyexams.com/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2020/01/The-female-reproductive-system.png
    - - called egg
      - adaptations
        
        zona pelucida
        
        jelly like coating which only allows one sperm to get in
        
        cytoplasm
        
        Contains a large amount of nutrients
      - parts
        
        mitochondria (less than in sperm)
        
        haploid nucleous
        
        cell membrane/ zona pelucida
        
        cytoplasm
      - features
        
        large (0.2mm)
        
        There are thoushands of eggs but only one is released each month
      - diagram
        
        https://cdn.savemyexams.com/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2020/05/Comparing-sperm-and-egg-cells-illustration.png
  - - - The sperm travel through the cervix to reach the uterus
        
        3.After reaching the uterus the sperms travel in one of the 2 felopian tubes
        
        The female and male gamete meet, the sperm breaks down the zona pelucida of the egg and enters it (only 1 sperm allowed)
        
        Fertilation occurs when the 2 haploid nucleus mix (23 cromozones), they form a zygote
        
        The zygote contains 46 chromosomes (23 from each cell). Then the zygote starts to divide via mitosis, When it has been divided it is called an embryo
        
        The cells continue to divide forming cells for specialised functions
        
        1 more item...
- - - - This causes a thick lining to form with nutrients and blood
        
        If the egg doesn't get fertilised menstruation happens (breaking down of the thick linning) Process starts again
    - - https://cdn.savemyexams.com/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2020/01/Changes-in-the-lining-of-the-uterus-during-the-menstrual-cycle.png
  - - - Uterus wall starts to thicken and makes the egg start to mature
      - the peak happens just before the egg is released
    - - Rises when ovulation occurs
      - Causes uterus to thicken further
      - fall of progesterone causes lining to break down
      - If the woman gets pregnant progesterone levels are kept the same
    - - FHS (follicle stimulationg hormone
        
        Released in pituitary gland
        
        causes the egg to start to grow
      - LH- luteinising hormone
        
        causes ovulation to occur and also stimulates the ovary to produce progesterone
        
        released when ostrogen levels are high
      - diagram
        
        https://cdn.savemyexams.com/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2021/08/Pituitary-hormones_1.png
        
        https://biology-igcse.weebly.com/uploads/1/5/0/7/15070316/7321240.png?654
- - - - the mother gives
        
        nutrients
        
        oxygen
        
        amino acids
      - the baby gives
        
        urine
        
        CO2
        
        Waste
      - Materials are passed through difussion or active transport
    - - The fetus is connected to the placenta through the umbilical cord
    - - vili
        
        more surface area to alllow more diffusion
      - thin wall
        
        makes for easier diffusion
      - Short distances so diffusion happens quicker
    - - https://cdn.savemyexams.com/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2020/01/The-placenta.png
  - - - The zygote divides and when it has done this several times it turns into an embryo
        
        3.The embryo embeds itself in the thick uterus lining and continues to grow
        
        4 A placenta is formed to exchange materials
        
        5.The embryo is surrounded by amniotic fluid (a fluid made from the mother’s blood plasma) that is held in by the amniotic membrane (also known as the amniotic sac)
        
        the amniotic fluid protects the embryo
        
        The embryo continues to grow for 9 months
        
        When an embryo has all of the organs and body parts it is called a fetus
        
        Mother to embryo-- O2, nutriens
        
        Embryo to mother- CO2, waste product
    - - https://cdn.savemyexams.com/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2020/01/The-fetus-in-the-uterus.png
- - - - Present in development of the uterus and are the difference between the reproductive organs
    - - Changes occurring during puberty
      - controlled by
        
        testosterone
        
        males
        
        oestrogen
        
        females
  - - - muscle develop
      - voice breaks/ gets deeper
      - growth of penis like jaume and testies
      - Testes start to produce sperm
      - growth of facial and body hair/pubic hair
    - - body hair/ pubic hair growth
      - menstrual cycle
      - breast grow
      - hips get wider