two types of wars: wars of rivalry (wars between equals) and wars of inequality (wars between unequals)

wars in the 19th century- Afghan Persian war, American civil war, Spanish-American war, Boer war, Napoleonic wars.

women leaders in the 21st century- Jacinda Arden, Michele Bachelet, Helen Clarke, Portia Simpson Smith.

sovereignty gaps in weak states-> leads to bargaining failure

international organisations- have the ability to shape international politics, we want them to have their own agenda and not have states shape them.

examples-
congress of vienna
international telegraph union
league of nations
UN

UNSC- 5 permanent members, 10 elected members
5- UK, Russia, China, US, France

they:
maintain peace
solve any disputes with meetings
recommend methods of adjusting
regulate ammdendemnts

they also chapter 2-
apply economic sanctions
military action against aggressors
exercise trusteeship with UN
elect judges for CoJ
242 vetos 1946-90
68-1991-23

biological weapons- plague-infested corpses used by Mongols in Ukraine in 1937
biological weapons convention 1972

nuclear weapons- 1945 Manhattan project

chemical weapons- Sarin and Ricin are used today. Mustard gas used in World War 1
they contain toxic components

NPT- is an organisation that developed to stop the use of nuclear weapons
it consists of 3 elements

1. those without nuclear weapons should not acquire them
2. those with nuclear weapons should dismantle them
3. states can access nuclear weapons only for peaceful purposes
   
   

191 countries joined in 2016
non parties- India, cuba, Pakistan, isreal
withdrawn- north Korea

sagan argues there are 3 elements as to why states uses nuclear weapons

1. incase of forgein threats
2. for domestic parties: military, politicians, nuclear energy establishments
3. norms model: nuclear symbolism (France)

Doyle offers 4 criteria for democracy- 1. market economy, 2. recognition as sovereign, 3. citizens have judicial rights, 4. governments as representatives

Bueno de Mesquita- democracies tend to shift resources to winning wars
constructivists believe- some states create friends/ enemies by interfering aggression or defensiveness for their domestic structures.

Rosato- argues for imperial peace (peace achieved through hegemony)
Gilber- argues for territorial peace (land can prevent armed conflicts from reoccurring)

Wood and Ramirez- patriarchal structures & rapid gendee hierachies increase a country's propensity for conflict.

Goldstein- no biological reason whymen have been the fighters in history.

Status quo state- state that tries to maintain the international law and free market capitalism.
examples: UK, France, Japan

Revisionist state- states who's objective it is to change or put an end to the current system. term from power transition theory.
examples: Russia, North Korea, Iran.

Edinger- the expansion of Nato backed Russia into a corner
Got and Shaun- draws on constructivism, strategic culture specifically
Oksamyta- the invasion was driven by Russia imperliasm and the desire to re-establish control over Ukraine.

the unipolar era- is a system in which one state is significantly more powerful than any other waltx expected bipolarity-. cold war- US v USSR

in 1992 US spent $592 billion in defence and $1.2 trillion globally

Wohlforth- unipolarity is likely to be both peaceful and durable

Monetrio- argues unipolarity isn't peaceful and offers a theory only on unipolar politics

Model 1- Geo-economic competition (regional economic blocs)

model 2- return of multipolarity (c21st looks like c18 and c19)

model 3- a new bipolarity (US & China shape politics)

model 4- democratic peace (liberal order expands)

model 5- clash of civilians

model 6- global frature (pre modern, modern and post modern states emerge)

model 7- global social crisis (struggle to cope problems and try prompt new social movements)

states: ' a political entity with territorial boarders and political authorities who enjoy sovereignty'.

sovereignty: the capacity to govern residents within a given territory to establish relationships with governments that control other states.

imperialism: a state strategy in which one country conquers foreign lands to turns them into colonies

Grieco- argued that 4 factors made European states successful imperalists:

a) superior technologies
b) economic base
c) europe as a competitive environment
d) temperature climate (resistance to disease)

Habermas- two pathways

• evolution of nation - states within existing territorial sates
• establishing a nation THEN a state
  

The treaty of Westphalia- the treaty of Westphalia brought to an end the 30 years war between protestant and catholic powers in Europe

it is argued to be seen as representing a movement from the religious to the senior

Krasner argues that the westphalian sovereign state model is based on principles of 'autonomy, territory, mutual recognition and control

there has ben critiques such as:
its failure to account properly for difference and placing the word other in understanding questions of sovereignty

while westphalia is establishment of sovereignty and political equality of states
European states exerted power over territories and populations elsewhere and rarely addressed literature.

krasner points to EU and Andorra as examples of how the sovereign states model is violated in territorial terms

Anthony Anghie argues that within the model, sovereignty is seen as to be the primary concept in eterming the nature of relations among states and the fact of being a modern nation state. However, it ignores the exercise of power of these states over societies

theories- Realism- assumes that interests are to be maintained through the exercise of power and that the world is characterised by competing power base. they argue the nation-state is the relevant agent

positivism- based upon positive knowledge and empirical sciences verify their characteristics

interpretivism- emphasises the importance of subjective views, emotions, values and opinions

pragmatism- focuses on conversational implicature which is a process in which the speaker implies and listener infers

rationalism- is the idea that knowledge can be acquired through reason alone

post modernism- are skeptical of explanations which claim to be valid for all groups, cultures, traditions, or races and instead focuses on the relative truths of each person.

constructivism- learns conduct knowledge rather than just passively taking in knowledge

Piaget- indicated that humans create knowledge through the interaction between experiences and ideas

post-colonialism- the political or cultural conditions of a former colony.

imperialism- state policy, practice or advocacy of extending power and dominion by direct territorial acquisition

Goertz two rival categories
positive peace- warm peace and security communities
negative peace