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Forensics - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Physical - age, ethnicity
      - Social - employment, marital status
      - Mental - IQ, motivation
  - - - 2 Types
        
        Organised
        
        Socially and sexually competent
        
        Living with a partner
        
        Above average intelligence, skilled
        
        Mobile
        
        Follows the crime reporting in the media
        
        Their crimes
        
        Appear planned and controlled
        
        Include use of restraints
        
        Involve a weapon
        
        Involve the removal of evidence
        
        Disorganised
        
        Living alone near crime scene
        
        Little interest in the media coverage of the crime
        
        Socially and sexually incompetent
        
        Their crimes
        
        Spontaneous
        
        Little control
        
        Minimal use of restraints/body is often displayed in open view
        
        All evidence left at scene
        
        Average to below average intelligence, unskilled
      - Origin
        
        Gained insights into
        
        What led to offences in the first place
        
        What early signs there were
        
        What encouraged or inhibited their offences
        
        From the insights, thorough analysis of crime details and police intuition, they created a classification system for various crimes
        
        In 1979, FBI investigators interviewed 36 imprisoned serial killers, including Manson and Bundy
      - AO3
        
        Oversimplified
        
        He analysed 100 murders and found his dichotomy to be false
        
        Holmes & Holmes (1998) reclassified murders into 5 categories :
        
        Mission
        
        Disorganised 'visionary killer'
        
        Hedonistic
        
        Lust
        
        Power/control
        
        Canter et al (2004) argued there are no distinct subsets of characteristics
        
        However, Canter (2004) criticised this revision further
        
        He reports that his analysis showed that features of power/control killings were found in over half the sample so it was typical for most murders and not a distinct type
        
        Flawed Methodology
        
        Non-standardised
        
        Typologies were developed in an intuitive and informal manner
        
        The volunteers were known to be manipulative so they are most likely unreliable
        
        The interviewers maintain they they had prior briefing and were able to detect any deception
        
        Classification is based on offenders who had been caught
        
        Offenders may differ significantly from those who aren't caught
        
        Sample size was small (36) and not random as it was an opportunity sample
        
        Approach has limited use
        
        These crimes are rare so there are few examples of successful profiles
        
        When it's used, findings showed that profiling rarely leads to directly to an offender (Douglas, 1981)
        
        15/192 cases
        
        However, in 77% of cases, it was cited as being helpful as it focused the investigation
        
        It is limited to crimes which leave significant evidence and are multiple offences
        
        Bottom-Up Approach
        
        Research Support
        
        The profile based on 11 murders of women in New York was of
        
        A lone male
        
        Aged at least 35
        
        With an unskilled job
        
        Suggested he would own a functional vehicle
        
        Have a police record
        
        Would return to the crime scene to re-experience the killing
        
        Based on the profile, police set up surveillance around the body of the 11th victim and caught him on a nearby bridge
        
        Arthur Shawcross carried out a number of murders in 1988/9
        
        He was
        
        44 years old
        
        His job was to cut salads
        
        Owned an ex police car
        
        On parole for earlier child murders
      - Involves
        
        Matching a particular type of criminal to the features of a particular crime
        
        Focus on aspects of the criminal's characteristics
        
        The creation of general typologies of criminal behaviour and motivation
    - - Critical factors
        
        Time and place
        
        The positioning and timing of crimes gives clues as to where the perp might work or live
        
        Criminal career
        
        This considers how far into their criminal experience offenders are & how their pattern of crime might progress
        
        Interpersonal coherence
        
        How the perp behaves at the crime scene is likely to reflect the type of person they are in real life
        
        Forensic awareness
        
        Highlights the fact that offenders who show an awareness of forensic investigation
      - AO3
        
        Further Support - Adrian Babb
        
        A serial rapist was profiled by Canter in 1994 and was arrested and found guilty of seven rapes
        
        Canter noticed patterns in the rapes
        
        Perp responded to discomfort of the victim
        
        Canter argued these suggested that the rapist would be known as helpful and considerate
        
        Babb was a well-regarded swimming pool attendant who was seen as considerate
        
        Scientific Technique
        
        Centred on statistical analysis at the crime scene
        
        Be considered more valid
        
        More scientific
        
        Research Support (Railway Rapists, Canter 1994)
        
        Canter used his method to identify patterns in the perpetrator's behaviour
        
        From 1982 to 1985, there was a series of rapes committed close to railway stations in the south east of England, then 3 women were killed through strangulation
        
        The rapist talked to his victims, forming a relationship with them, showing consideration and using minimal force
        
        Canter's profile was
        
        A sexually experienced man in his later 20s with a partner
        
        A semi-skilled job
        
        Little contact with women
        
        Had been arrested before and living in Kilburn with knowledge of the railway network
        
        John Duffy was arrested
        
        29 year old carpenter who worked as a railway worked, who was separated from his wife, and had a criminal record for raping his ex-wife
        
        Lived in Kilburn
        
        Study by Kocsis (2002)
        
        Chem students produced more accurate profiles than detectives
        
        There was also some evidence of an inverse relationship between investigative experience and profile accuracy
        
        Examined the importance of investigative experience by testing groups of detectives and undergrad chem students on a closed case
        
        Could be due to schemas
      - Origin
        
        The evidence revealed clusters of events that commonly occur together
        
        Location
        
        Choice of and interaction with the victims including speech patterns and content
        
        Time of offence
        
        Using stat analysis, Canter was able to develop an understanding of which factors might be associated with each other and which were less likely to be connected
        
        Canted studied the crime scenes of 66 SA cases (not interviewing perps)
      - Geographical Profiling
        
        Based on the schema theory and mental mapping
        
        Likely to form a circle of gravity
        
        Suggests that locations of crime aren't random and familiarity is important to the offender
        
        2 types of offenders
        
        Commuters - who travel to commit the crime
        
        Marauders - who stick close to home
        
        The study of spatial behaviour in relation to crime and offenders
        
        Research Support (AO3)
        
        Canter and Lundrigan (2002) collated info from 120 murder cases in the USA
        
        Stat analysis revealed sig. geographical consistency in the behaviour of all killers
        
        The offenders' base was found to be in the centre of the pattern
      - Involves
        
        Takes evidence and data from the crime scene and builds up the profile until a reasonable conclusion about the offender is reached
        
        Uses a similar technique to US approach but typologies aren't involved and relies primarily on scientific principles
- - - - Negative reinforcement
      - Punishment
      - Positive reinforcement
    - - Most BM programmes are based around this system
      - This can be managed by prison staff and is something all inmates would be required to adhere to
      - Tokens are secondary reinforcers as they derive their value from their association with reward
      - Positive reinforcement
        
        When good behaviour occurs, prisoners earn tokens
        
        These can be exchanged for desirable items or privileges
        
        To ensure good behaviour continues and bad is stamped out
      - Negative reinforcement/punishment
        
        Threat of taking back tokens when they have badly
        
        Can be a powerful tool to modify behaviour
        
        Those that fail to comply/disobey face consequences
    - - Decrease undesirable behaviours
      - Increase desirable behaviours
    - - Long Term Success
        
        Little evidence to suggest they work when an offender leaves the institution
        
        They have little rehabilitative effect
      - Ethics
        
        BM programmes have received criticism for contravening human rights
        
        By withholding visits or access to exercise, it's seen as unethical
        
        The opposing argument is that prisoners have been incarcerated for lack of moral/ethical code and have lost the right to those privileges
      - Ease of Use
        
        Cost-effective
        
        Easy to introduce as staff don't need to be trained
        
        BM takes little training or expense to run effectively
        
        Unless all staff use the system consistently, success will be limited
        
        Research by Bassett found that factors such as lack of training and high staff turnover negatively impacted success rates
      - Hobbs & Holt
        
        Found BM programme in 3 young offenders institutions reduced amount of undesirable behaviour within the institution compared with one without a programme
        
        Shows the short term benefits that BM can have
      - Extrinsic Motivation
        
        Trains prisoners to behave for personal gain only
        
        A very surface level solution
        
        Any treatment which focuses on intrinsic motivation is likely to have greater long term effects
  - - - Skill Acquisition
        
        Learning skills and techniques to help the criminal deal with the situations more effectively
        
        Behaviour - assertiveness training in how to communicate more effectively
        
        Physiological training - meditation/relaxation to manage the physical effects of the stress response
        
        Cognitive training - positive self-talk
      - Application Practise
        
        This may involve re-enacting past scenarios where the therapist winds up the criminal to assess their progress
        
        The criminal has to have made a lot of progress before this
        
        Practising the skills and techniques learned in phase 3 using role play in therapy sessions
      - Cognitive Preparation
        
        Reflecting on past experience and exploring past patterns of anger/behaviour
        
        Identifying trigger situations and rationalising the thinking behind them
    - - Research Support
        
        Keen et al (2000) studied the progress made by young offenders aged 17-21 undergoing AMT by England & Wales Prison Service
        
        After 8 weeks, offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management difficulties increased self-control
      - More Successful than BM
        
        It tackles 4 levels of the offender - their thoughts, emotions, behaviour and physiology
        
        It tackles what is thought to be the direct cause of offending
        
        A very powerful treatment with potential to lower recidivism
        
        BM has no use outside of prison but AM does, as offenders learn how to manage their thoughts, emotions and behaviour
      - Limited Support at Lowering Recidivism
        
        As offenders get to roleplay the situations rather than engage in support with a therapist in the real world, it has limited effectiveness
        
        If a therapist could be present in a real anxiety setting, where the individual could truly practise the techniques, it would be more effective long term
        
        Blackburn (1993) believes that it's long term success is hindered by phase 3
      - Novaco
        
        Psychologists have even gone as far as to suggest that the theory and treatment give offenders an excuse
        
        Not all crimes are motivated by anger
        
        Novaco's assumption that thoughts trigger negative emotion and behaviour is challenged by others who have found no difference in anger levels between violent and non-violent offenders
      - Expense
        
        It requires many specialised training therapists and prisons are overrun with offendes in need of treatment
        
        Another factor is that the offender needs to be motivated and needs to desire to change
        
        The prison service lacks the funds to run the treatment
  - - - Retribution
        
        It's the idea that if the offender has hurt someone, they should pay for their actions
        
        The deprivations that the prisoners experience are seen as necessary punishment for their actions
        
        Focuses on the feelings of the victims, their family/friends
      - Confinement
        
        The prisoner is unable to commit other crimes and no longer pose a danger to society
      - Deterrence
        
        Operates on behaviourist principles of operant conditioning - prisoners learn that crime is punished and don't want to commit crime again
        
        AO3 - Evidence against Deterrence
        
        The UK and USA have the highest reoffending rates in the world
        
        Latest figures suggest that globally recidivism is as high as 57% but much higher in many places
        
        Recidivism can be used to measure whether the aim has been met or not
        
        These official statistics show that deterrence isn't an aim that is fulfilled by custodial sentencing
        
        The idea that prison should stop reoffending
      - Rehabilitation
        
        Counselling and educational programmes are offered within prison to try to decrease the chances the prisoner will reoffend
        
        AO3 - College of Crime
        
        Prison is seen as a potential source of info on how to commit crimes with more skills
        
        Prisoners are able to mix closely with much more skilled criminals that are further into their criminal career and learn from them
        
        This means it could have the opposite effect
    - - Stress and Depression
        
        Are much higher in prison than in the general population
        
        Sykes believes this is due to the 5 deprivations
        
        Personal autonomy
        
        Liberty
        
        Heterosexual relationships
        
        Goods and services
        
        Safety
      - Institutionalisation
        
        Prisoners that become so accustomed to the life in prison are unable to function without it upon release
        
        They have become reliant upon the institution whose norms and values they have adapted to survive
    - - In the last 10yrs, in some British prisons, rates have been over 70%
      - The UK and USA have the highest rates in the world
      - 57% of prisoners go on to reoffend
      - Norway has the lowest recidivism rate in the world
        
        Its prison system focuses on rehabilitation and skills developement
        
        Many view it as not punitive enough
      - AO3
        
        Mental Health
        
        Coid et al (2007) found that mental health of prisoners had a direct effect on recidivism rates
        
        Offenders in the UK who received mental health treatment while in prison were 60% less likely to reoffend than untreated inmates
        
        Institutionalisation
        
        Malott and Fromader (2010) conducted a survey with 102 Australian male offenders asking how they felt upon release and what would reduce recidivism
        
        Offenders felt unsupported upon release and said greater level of resources, treatment and support would reduce recidivism
        
        Supports the idea that offenders feel institutionalised and reoffending allows them to reenter and environment organised for them
        
        Further Support
        
        The fact that they received 3 meals a day together with a bed and companionship was preferable to outside prison
        
        Validates the claim that institutionalisation is a psychological effect that leads to recidivism
        
        Hollin (1992) reported that prison became home to some prisoners
  - - - Variations in the process involve the offender paying for the damage cause (amount reflects the psychological or physical damage)
      - Other schemes involve the perp actually repairing the physical damage caused (useful with young offenders)
      - The process should be mutually beneficial for both the offender and victim
      - The Restorative Justice Council is the independent body which manages this way of dealing with offending behaviour
      - The offender should be able to see the consequences, including the emotional distress they caused
      - It deals with all agencies and people involved in the program and ensures it's practised appropriately throughout the UK
      - A trained mediator hosts a meeting between offender and victim, in which the victim is encouraged to confront the offender and explain how the incident affected them
    - - Not Tough Enough
        
        They cite the importance of punishment and feel it is more important
        
        Claim there is a danger that offenders fake remorse to reduce their sentence
        
        Many politicians and members of the public criticise RJS for being too soft
        
        We aren't sure whether they are truly sorry making the success difficult to measure objectively in short term
      - Implication
        
        The organisation Women's Aid called for a ban of RJS in DV cases due to the power imbalance between the abused and abuser
        
        A new method was agreed between the charity and RJC
        
        The survivor must feel in control and must have no impact on the perp's criminal sanctions
        
        RJS must never be taken as an opportunity to minimise the crime or be used as an alternative to a more serious sanction
        
        Women's Aid and RJC are clear that RJS can be used in DV cases but only if the survivor's safety remains paramount
        
        Specialist training on DV and coercive control must be undertaken by all RJS practitioners
        
        Women's Aid and RJC can deliver this training
        
        It is essential that this is done for RJS to be used safely and effectively in DV cases
      - Psychopaths
        
        Biological explanations of offending suggest that some criminals have a biological inability to empathise
        
        This would render the treatment useless for them
        
        The success hinges on the assumption that the offender can feel remorse
      - Research Into Funding
        
        However, critics argue that this doesn't take into account the training
        
        Furthermore, attrition rates on the schemes are high and result in loss of money
        
        A 7 year government funded research project by Shapland (2007) found that for every £1 spent on RJS the criminal justice system would save £8 through reduce recidivism
      - Flexibility
        
        It is a much deeper way of dealing with offending behaviour
        
        If used effectively, it should lead to a permanent change
        
        It can be used as an alternative to custodial sentencing, as an additional resource and tailored to the individual needs of the victim and perp
- - - - Criminals' behaviour is more unstable and more difficult to predict so they are more neurotic
    - - Eysenck also proposed that they are cold, unemotional and prone to aggression so they score highly on psychoticism
    - - An underactive nervous system drives criminals to seek greater excitement and stimulation in their environment
      - They aren't able to be conditioned in the same way as non-criminals as they aren't as easily put off by negative experiences
        
        Non-criminals learn not to do certain behaviours through operant conditioning, but criminals don't learn as readily as non-criminals
        
        This is because they don't learnt to respond to anti-social impulses with anxiety
  - - - Eysenck's theory may help with crime prevention strategies
      - Suggests that there are traits linked to criminality which are detectable in childhood so it may be possible to modify socialisation experiences of high-risk individuals so they don't develop into offenders
      - Could lead to interventions based on parenting or early treatment for delinquency and hence may be of great practical benefit in reducing criminal behaviour
    - - Psychologists have found differences in scores of EPI between white, hispanic and black inmates
      - Results from a NY max security prison showed that black and hispanic inmates were more introverted than their white counterparts
      - This questions the extent to which Eysenck's theory can be used nomothetically
    - - These findings don't fully support Eysenck's theory
      - There is also very little evidence of consistent in EEG measures between extraverts and introverts which casts doubt on the biological basis of the theory
      - Reviewed studies and reported that offenders tended to score high on P measures but not for E & N
      - If a faulty nervous system causes extraversion, they should have a very different EEG
    - - EPI can be subject to social desirability bias
      - Responses may also vary due to the mood of the individual
      - Both supporting and challenging evidence relies on self-report measures of personality
      - This is problematic as it lowers both the validity and reliability of the research that underpins the theory
    - - On measures of E, N & P, prisoners recorded higher scores
      - A control shows effort for scientific rigour and improves validity
      - Assessed 2070 male prisoners and compared them on the EPI to a control group of 2422 males
- - - - Low sloping foreheads
      - High cheekbones
      - Large protruding jaws
      - Flattened noses
      - Facial asymmetry
      - Dark skin
      - Possible extra toes, nipples or fingers
    - - Sexual Deviants
        
        Glinting eyes
        
        Protruding ears
        
        Swollen, fleshy lips
      - Fraudsters
        
        Thin and reedy lips
      - Murderers
        
        Curly hair
        
        Long ears
        
        Bloodshot eyes
    - - Analysed 383 dead criminals and 3839 live ones
      - Proposed that 40% of all criminal acts can be accounted for by atavistic features
      - Meticulously examined the facial and cranial features of 100s of Italian convicts, both living and dead
    - - Scientific Racism
        
        Many features he draws out are just characteristics linked to African descent
        
        His description of atavistic form linked to 'uncivilised primitive' behaviour can be linked to the eugenics movement
        
        Said to have started with the cousin of Darwin who put forward the idea that not all people are born equal
        
        Only some cultures possess 'desirable' traits and these groups should be allowed to breed for the good of humanity
        
        Many critics pointed out how racist the theory is
      - Contradictory Evidence
        
        Goring's research had a control group so is more scientific and more credible
        
        It may be more likely that Lombroso's findings are coincidental and can be found amongst any people group of that size
        
        This research contradicts Lombroso's theory especially as it is close in time
        
        Goring (1913) carried out an analysis of 3000 criminals and 3000 non-criminals and found no evidence that criminals possess certain facial/cranial characteristics
      - Contribution to Criminology
        
        Took emphasis away from judging criminals and started hypothesising about possible genetic and evolutionary processes
        
        Been credited for starting modern offender profiling through linking physical features to types of criminal
        
        Lombroso has been labelled the father of modern criminology
      - Alternative Explanation
        
        Kaplan's (1980) self-derogation theory argues that if individuals experience persistently poor interactions with others, they will develop lower self-esteem and increased frustration with others, making them more likely to commit criminal behaviour
        
        Interactionist Approach
        
        This theory argues there is an interaction between biology and the way they may be treated
        
        Lombroso's theory suggests that criminality is biological but the interactionist approach suggests that criminality is both nature and nurture
    - - Argued that criminals' savage and untamed nature meant they wouldn't be able to follow social norms/laws of a civilised society and would turn to a life of crime
  - - - Amygdala
        
        One of the oldest parts of the brain that is key in emotion regulation
        
        Seems that stimulation of the amygdala results in violent behaviour while lesions reduces it
      - Frontal Lobes
        
        Part of the neocortex
        
        Have been linkted to higher brain function, such as social behaviours and planning
      - Evidence suggests there may be neural differences between criminals and non-criminals
    - - Wong (1997)
        
        This seems to contradict the findings of Groves
        
        The exact role of the amygdala is still unclear
        
        Found reduced amygdala size and activity in violent criminals
        
        What we do know is that the amygdala plays a role
      - Raine (1997)
        
        41 murderers (2 female) given a PET scan to highlight areas of brain activity and these results were compared to an age and gender matched control group
        
        Results
        
        They found reduced activity for the offender group in areas such as prefrontal cortex and corpus callosum
        
        There were abnormalities in amygdala activity
        
        Identified abnormally functioning brain regions specific to offenders with murder or manslaughter, who had pleaded insanity
        
        Shows that violent offenders have abnormal brain function
        
        Suggests that the brains of offenders are slowed and unable to make swift decisions to react appropriately in certain situations or consider the consequences of their actions in order to control their behaviour
      - Groves and Schlesinger (1982)
        
        Found that amygdalectomy reduces aggression in violent individuals
        
        This supports the idea that the amygdala plays a role in aggression
  - - - 'Warrior' gene affects the production of MAOA
      - MAOA is a chemical which breaks down neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine in the brain
      - A specific gene has been identified as being associated with violent crime
      - The gene disturbs MAOA production, resulting in an abundance of these neurotransmitters - thought to cause aggression
    - - Stuart (2014)
        
        Studied 97 men who were going through a treatment programme because they had physically assaulted their wives
        
        Men with the warrior gene were most violent
      - Implications
        
        Some researchers believe that interaction between genes and environment brings out aggression rather than just the genes
        
        In America (2007), a man had his death penalty reduced to manslaughter as he had the warrior gene and a history of abuse
        
        This has worrying implications for the future as more violent criminals may have their sentence altered with more evidence
      - Brunner
        
        Brunner studied a family in the Netherlands with a history of violent aggression in the males (one man raped his sister, another ran down his boss with his car)
        
        Results showed that the warrior gene was present in members of the family, directly supporting the theory
        
        A case study has been published supports the warrior gene idea
- - - - Essentially assuming that others are confrontational when they aren't
      - Other people's actions are misinterpreted which leads to criminality
      - Tendency to assume that everyone is massively hostile
      - AO3 - Schonenberg
        
        Presented 55 offenders with images of neutral faces
        
        Compared with a matched non-aggressive control
        
        The offenders were more likely to judge the faces as angry or hostile
    - - Tendency to explain away behaviour
      - AO3 - Support for Particular Offenders
        
        This supports the idea that minimisation is indeed a cognitive distortion experienced by criminals
        
        Research shows that sex offenders have a tendency for minimisation, either denying the offence or minimising the effect of harm they describe the victim as experiencing
      - Attempts to deny or downplay the seriousness of the offence
  - - - Level 2 - Conventional Morality
        
        Stage 3 - Interpersonal Concordance Orientation (doing what is right to be seen as good)
        
        Stage 4 - Law and Order Orientation (doing what is right as it's your duty and helps society)
      - Level 3 - Postconventional Morality
        
        Stage 5 - Social Contract or Legalistic Orientation (doing what is right even if it is against the law because the law is too restrictive)
        
        Stage 6 - Universal Ethical Principles Orientation (doing what is right because of our inner conscious which has absorbed the principles of justice, equality and sacredness of life
      - Level 1 - Pre-Morality
        
        Stage 2 - Hedonistic Orientation (doing what is right for personal gain)
        
        Stage 1 - Punishment and Obedience Orientation (doing what is right for fear of punishment)
    - - Imposed Etic
        
        Gibbs criticises Kohlberg's theory as being culturally biassed
        
        Argues that it's only relevant in Western culture and any attempt to apply it is imposed etic
        
        Political climates of cultures will hugely affect individual differences in outcome
      - Further Issues
        
        Research has shown that level of moral reasoning is affected by the type of criminal
        
        Petty criminals are more likely to be at stage 1, however criminals who committed impulsive crimes demonstrated no moral reasoning
        
        This fits with biological explanations of the primal brain taking over at the expense of any other brain area
      - Palmer and Hollin (1998)
        
        Results were consistent with Kohlberg's predictions
        
        Psychologists have proposed that this could be explained by criminals lacking opportunities in childhood to engage in roleplay and this could be a crucial preventative measure
        
        Compared moral reasoning between 210 female non-offenders, 122 male non-offenders and 126 offenders using moral reasoning dilemmas
- - - - It's impossible to measure how many pro and anti-criminal associations any individual is being exposed to during their life
      - You cannot accurately observe or self-report these associations with childhood memories being unreliable
    - - This undermines the scientific credibility of DAT
      - There is no specific figure that is reported as the danger score
    - - By focusing on nurture, the approach opens ways for proactive solutions
        
        These could involve education, exposure to positive role models, moderation of media through government policies and laws to protect young people
      - Sutherland departed from biology and derived a theory that didn't discriminate against class, race or ethnic background
    - - Mednick (1984) found that boys whose biological parents had no criminal record but were adopted by parents with a criminal record were more likely to offend themselves than boys whose biological and adoptive parents had no criminal record
      - Supports the validity of the theory
    - - He was particularly interested in white collar crimes of the middle classes and DAT can explain why middle class people offend
      - A massive strength as not all explanations fit all backgrounds and types of crime
      - Sutherland's theory doesn't discriminate against any social/cultural group
- - - - If the superego is inadequate, then the id has too much power and criminal behaviour is inevitable
      - 3 types
        
        Weak
        
        If the same sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, resolution isn't possible, as the child cannot identify with and internalise their same sex parent
        
        This creates a weak superego, making criminal behaviour more likely
        
        Deviant
        
        If the same sex parent is immoral themselves, this will lead to offending behaviour
        
        Over-harsh
        
        Identifying with a severely harsh parent will create an overactive superego, which some psychologists believe could drive the individual unconsciously towards criminal behaviour as they seek punishment
      - The superego should form during the phallic stage, through resolution of the Oedipus/Electra complex, with identification with the same sex parent
    - - Lack of Evidence/Ethical Implications
        
        The ethical implications are far reaching
        
        It is immensely socially sensitive to suggest that children from single parent families have higher chances of becoming criminals
        
        Furthermore, there is no evidence to support this
        
        This also applies for children from same sex parents
      - Unscientific and Unfalsifiable
        
        The idea of the superego is unfalsifiable and immeasurable
        
        It cannot be tested empirically, so it will always be heavily criticised by the majority of psychologists who are seeking scientific worth
      - Gender Bias
        
        This is refuted by official statistics which state that the gender split in prisons is 93% vs 7%
        
        The result is women are less moral and more deviant than men and more likely to become criminals
        
        Freud believed that because girls don't have castration anxiety, they have less pressure to identify with their mothers
  - - - Bowlby identified affectionless psychopathy as a risk factor
      - This prevents the child from forming normal relationships throughout their life and is associated with criminal behaviour
      - If an infant is unable to form a continuous attachment with their mother during the critical period, they are at risk of developing intellectual, behavioural and emotional difficulties
    - - 44 Juvenile Thieves (Bowlby)
        
        Interviews took place
        
        With the thieves themselves to see whether they fit the criteria of affectionless psychopathy
        
        With parents to determine whether they had experienced maternal deprivation
        
        Results
        
        12/14 had experienced prolonged maternal deprivation
        
        Only 5 of the remaining thieves had experienced maternal deprivation and only 2 in a control group
        
        14/44 thieves could be described as affectionless psychopaths
        
        44 teenage criminals accused of stealing referred to a clinic
        
        Conclusions
        
        Maternal deprivation during the critical period is linked to thieving behaviour and in extreme, affectionless psychopathy
        
        Totally supports Bowlby
      - Validity of the Interviews
        
        Bowlby carried out the interviews, no inter-rater reliability established
        
        We are relying on parent's memories and memory is fallible
      - Lewis (1954)
        
        Replicated Bowlby's study with 500 teenagers
        
        Found no link between maternal deprivation and criminality or psychopathy
        
        No support