A massive issue with the cognitive approach is that it describes the criminal mind but not why therefore it has no explanatory power

Based on their reaction to the dilemmas, Kohlberg was able to classify participants as operating at one of three levels

Kohlberg found that violent youths were sig. lower in their level of development than non-violent youths, even when social background was accounted for

Kohlberg came up with a series of dilemmas that people needed to solve

Kohlberg proposed that criminals have a lower level of moral reasoning

The preconventional level is characterised by a need to avoid punishment and gain rewards, and is associated with immature, childlike reasoning, making criminal acts more likely

Many criminals display the egocentric, empathy-lacking traits that fit with the theory (face validity)

Stage 2 - Hedonistic Orientation (doing what is right for personal gain)

Stage 1 - Punishment and Obedience Orientation (doing what is right for fear of punishment)

Stage 3 - Interpersonal Concordance Orientation (doing what is right to be seen as good)

Stage 4 - Law and Order Orientation (doing what is right as it's your duty and helps society)

Stage 5 - Social Contract or Legalistic Orientation (doing what is right even if it is against the law because the law is too restrictive)

Stage 6 - Universal Ethical Principles Orientation (doing what is right because of our inner conscious which has absorbed the principles of justice, equality and sacredness of life

Psychologists have proposed that this could be explained by criminals lacking opportunities in childhood to engage in roleplay and this could be a crucial preventative measure

Compared moral reasoning between 210 female non-offenders, 122 male non-offenders and 126 offenders using moral reasoning dilemmas

Argues that it's only relevant in Western culture and any attempt to apply it is imposed etic

Political climates of cultures will hugely affect individual differences in outcome

Research has shown that level of moral reasoning is affected by the type of criminal

Petty criminals are more likely to be at stage 1, however criminals who committed impulsive crimes demonstrated no moral reasoning

This fits with biological explanations of the primal brain taking over at the expense of any other brain area

Essentially assuming that others are confrontational when they aren't

Other people's actions are misinterpreted which leads to criminality

The offenders were more likely to judge the faces as angry or hostile

This supports the idea that minimisation is indeed a cognitive distortion experienced by criminals

Research shows that sex offenders have a tendency for minimisation, either denying the offence or minimising the effect of harm they describe the victim as experiencing

Sutherland predicted that we would be able to predict whether or not someone will turn to criminality by counting the number of pro vs anti-criminal associations they make and if pro outweighs anti, they will produce a criminal (scientific/mathematical basis)

Associations include any exposure to anti or pro-criminal norms and values, through relationships, role models, social norms/groups, media etc. and can be attitudes or techniques

The theory suggests that crime is learned through the relationships and associations we form with those around us

The theory explains why so many criminals go on to reoffend as they form new associations and learn new techniques from one another

Differential association theory is a social learning theory of crime, first proposed by Sutherland in 1939

He was particularly interested in white collar crimes of the middle classes and DAT can explain why middle class people offend

A massive strength as not all explanations fit all backgrounds and types of crime

Sutherland's theory doesn't discriminate against any social/cultural group

Sutherland departed from biology and derived a theory that didn't discriminate against class, race or ethnic background

These could involve education, exposure to positive role models, moderation of media through government policies and laws to protect young people

It's impossible to measure how many pro and anti-criminal associations any individual is being exposed to during their life

You cannot accurately observe or self-report these associations with childhood memories being unreliable

Mednick (1984) found that boys whose biological parents had no criminal record but were adopted by parents with a criminal record were more likely to offend themselves than boys whose biological and adoptive parents had no criminal record

If the superego is inadequate, then the id has too much power and criminal behaviour is inevitable

The superego should form during the phallic stage, through resolution of the Oedipus/Electra complex, with identification with the same sex parent

This prevents the child from forming normal relationships throughout their life and is associated with criminal behaviour

If an infant is unable to form a continuous attachment with their mother during the critical period, they are at risk of developing intellectual, behavioural and emotional difficulties

If the same sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, resolution isn't possible, as the child cannot identify with and internalise their same sex parent

This creates a weak superego, making criminal behaviour more likely

If the same sex parent is immoral themselves, this will lead to offending behaviour

Identifying with a severely harsh parent will create an overactive superego, which some psychologists believe could drive the individual unconsciously towards criminal behaviour as they seek punishment

This is refuted by official statistics which state that the gender split in prisons is 93% vs 7%

The result is women are less moral and more deviant than men and more likely to become criminals

Freud believed that because girls don't have castration anxiety, they have less pressure to identify with their mothers

It is immensely socially sensitive to suggest that children from single parent families have higher chances of becoming criminals

It cannot be tested empirically, so it will always be heavily criticised by the majority of psychologists who are seeking scientific worth

Found no link between maternal deprivation and criminality or psychopathy

Bowlby carried out the interviews, no inter-rater reliability established

With the thieves themselves to see whether they fit the criteria of affectionless psychopathy

With parents to determine whether they had experienced maternal deprivation

Only 5 of the remaining thieves had experienced maternal deprivation and only 2 in a control group

14/44 thieves could be described as affectionless psychopaths

Maternal deprivation during the critical period is linked to thieving behaviour and in extreme, affectionless psychopathy

When an offender is found guilty in court and as punishment, spends time in prison

Operates on behaviourist principles of operant conditioning - prisoners learn that crime is punished and don't want to commit crime again

The UK and USA have the highest reoffending rates in the world

Latest figures suggest that globally recidivism is as high as 57% but much higher in many places

Recidivism can be used to measure whether the aim has been met or not

These official statistics show that deterrence isn't an aim that is fulfilled by custodial sentencing

It's the idea that if the offender has hurt someone, they should pay for their actions

The deprivations that the prisoners experience are seen as necessary punishment for their actions

The prisoner is unable to commit other crimes and no longer pose a danger to society

Counselling and educational programmes are offered within prison to try to decrease the chances the prisoner will reoffend

Prison is seen as a potential source of info on how to commit crimes with more skills

Prisoners are able to mix closely with much more skilled criminals that are further into their criminal career and learn from them

Prisoners that become so accustomed to the life in prison are unable to function without it upon release

They have become reliant upon the institution whose norms and values they have adapted to survive

In the last 10yrs, in some British prisons, rates have been over 70%

Its prison system focuses on rehabilitation and skills developement

Coid et al (2007) found that mental health of prisoners had a direct effect on recidivism rates

Offenders in the UK who received mental health treatment while in prison were 60% less likely to reoffend than untreated inmates

Malott and Fromader (2010) conducted a survey with 102 Australian male offenders asking how they felt upon release and what would reduce recidivism

Offenders felt unsupported upon release and said greater level of resources, treatment and support would reduce recidivism

Supports the idea that offenders feel institutionalised and reoffending allows them to reenter and environment organised for them

The fact that they received 3 meals a day together with a bed and companionship was preferable to outside prison

Validates the claim that institutionalisation is a psychological effect that leads to recidivism

Hollin (1992) reported that prison became home to some prisoners

This can be managed by prison staff and is something all inmates would be required to adhere to

Tokens are secondary reinforcers as they derive their value from their association with reward

Found BM programme in 3 young offenders institutions reduced amount of undesirable behaviour within the institution compared with one without a programme

Little evidence to suggest they work when an offender leaves the institution

BM programmes have received criticism for contravening human rights

By withholding visits or access to exercise, it's seen as unethical

The opposing argument is that prisoners have been incarcerated for lack of moral/ethical code and have lost the right to those privileges

Research by Bassett found that factors such as lack of training and high staff turnover negatively impacted success rates

Any treatment which focuses on intrinsic motivation is likely to have greater long term effects

Through anger management, criminals can be taught to rationalise thinking in anxiety provoking situations and minimise negative emotions

Some criminals may be more cognitively vulnerable in anxiety-provoking situations and their thought patterns trigger anger which triggers aggression and by aggressing, the individual gains control which is positively reinforcing

A type of CBT based on the assumption by Novaco (1975) that cognitive factors cause the emotion that triggers aggression

Reflecting on past experience and exploring past patterns of anger/behaviour

Identifying trigger situations and rationalising the thinking behind them

Behaviour - assertiveness training in how to communicate more effectively

Physiological training - meditation/relaxation to manage the physical effects of the stress response

This may involve re-enacting past scenarios where the therapist winds up the criminal to assess their progress

Practising the skills and techniques learned in phase 3 using role play in therapy sessions

Keen et al (2000) studied the progress made by young offenders aged 17-21 undergoing AMT by England & Wales Prison Service

After 8 weeks, offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management difficulties increased self-control

It tackles 4 levels of the offender - their thoughts, emotions, behaviour and physiology

BM has no use outside of prison but AM does, as offenders learn how to manage their thoughts, emotions and behaviour

As offenders get to roleplay the situations rather than engage in support with a therapist in the real world, it has limited effectiveness

If a therapist could be present in a real anxiety setting, where the individual could truly practise the techniques, it would be more effective long term

Blackburn (1993) believes that it's long term success is hindered by phase 3

Psychologists have even gone as far as to suggest that the theory and treatment give offenders an excuse

Novaco's assumption that thoughts trigger negative emotion and behaviour is challenged by others who have found no difference in anger levels between violent and non-violent offenders

It requires many specialised training therapists and prisons are overrun with offendes in need of treatment

Another factor is that the offender needs to be motivated and needs to desire to change

The victim takes an active role in the process and the offender must take responsibility and face up to what they have done

Variations in the process involve the offender paying for the damage cause (amount reflects the psychological or physical damage)

Other schemes involve the perp actually repairing the physical damage caused (useful with young offenders)

The process should be mutually beneficial for both the offender and victim

The Restorative Justice Council is the independent body which manages this way of dealing with offending behaviour

The offender should be able to see the consequences, including the emotional distress they caused

It deals with all agencies and people involved in the program and ensures it's practised appropriately throughout the UK

A trained mediator hosts a meeting between offender and victim, in which the victim is encouraged to confront the offender and explain how the incident affected them

It can be used as an alternative to custodial sentencing, as an additional resource and tailored to the individual needs of the victim and perp

Biological explanations of offending suggest that some criminals have a biological inability to empathise

The success hinges on the assumption that the offender can feel remorse

They cite the importance of punishment and feel it is more important

Claim there is a danger that offenders fake remorse to reduce their sentence

Many politicians and members of the public criticise RJS for being too soft

We aren't sure whether they are truly sorry making the success difficult to measure objectively in short term

The organisation Women's Aid called for a ban of RJS in DV cases due to the power imbalance between the abused and abuser

However, critics argue that this doesn't take into account the training

Furthermore, attrition rates on the schemes are high and result in loss of money

A 7 year government funded research project by Shapland (2007) found that for every £1 spent on RJS the criminal justice system would save £8 through reduce recidivism

The survivor must feel in control and must have no impact on the perp's criminal sanctions

RJS must never be taken as an opportunity to minimise the crime or be used as an alternative to a more serious sanction

Women's Aid and RJC are clear that RJS can be used in DV cases but only if the survivor's safety remains paramount

Specialist training on DV and coercive control must be undertaken by all RJS practitioners

It is essential that this is done for RJS to be used safely and effectively in DV cases