Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Lab Practical - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Leucoplasts (Amyloplasts) are a storage plastid. In the case of amyloplasts, starch is stored. Starch grains nearly fill the entire stroma
      - Nuclei are control centers of cells and house the genetic material. This should appear as a spherical structure within the cytoplasm
      - Plastids are organelles that have a double membrane with inner stromal fluid in which various metabolism occurs, including synthesis, storage, and export of lipids, amino acids, sugars, iron and pigments
    - - Capsicum annuum epidermis
      - Allium cepa epidermal
      - Capsicum annuum
      - Epidermal cells of an aquatic plant from Konowa lake showing multiple green chloroplasts
  - - - Cellular respiration can be described as three major stages:
        glycolysis, the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain
      - Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm
      - the citric acid cycle occurs within the mitochondrial matrix
      - the electron transport
        chain on the mitochondrial cristae
    - - Figure. Color variation after heating Benedict’s reagent in the presence of reducing sugars, in this case varying amounts of glucose.
  - - - hypothesis
        
        ● Make it a statement, not a question
        
        ● Make it clear. Other readers should know right away what you believed would happen prior to starting the experiment
        
        ● Define your variables. Who/what are involved? What changes during the experiment? What are the likely outcomes?
        
        ● It must be testable.
      - . Fluorescence occurs when excited electrons from the photosystem reaction centers are not picked up by electron carriers. Thus, rather than being passed along the electron transport chain, electrons return to their original orbital
      - Standard deviation: sx = √((∑_xi^1 〖(x_i-▁x)〗^2)/((n-1)))
      - Mean: ▁x= ∑ x_i/n
  - - - In general, liverworts (aka Marchantiphyta or Hepatophyta) have flat or leafy gametophytes that we recognize as the “plant” individual. They do not have vascular tissue. The unicellular rhizoid helps affix them to the soil surface and do not have vascular tissue
      - The male antheridiophore contains antheridia in which mitosis occurs to produce sperm
      - The embryo undergoes mitosis to form the sporophyte that is completely dependent on the gametophyte. Within the sporophyte, sporocytes divide by meiosis to produce spores. The spores disperse and germinate in moist environments, dividing mitotically to form a mature gametophyte. And the process repeats.
      - The developing embryo undergoes mitosis, forming a long diploid stalk, seta, atop which can be found a capsule (aka sporangium) within which meiosis occurs, producing spores
- - - - Parenchyma cells are generally large cells with a well developed large central vacuole used for storage often of water and food
      - The progression in water-conducting parenchyma cells started with simple water-conducting cells, more specialized hyrdroids to true tracheids and vessel elements.
      - For food-conducting cells, simple parenchyma specialized into leptoids:
      - . Stereids are elongate, thick-walled, slender, and fiberlike cells that add support to the stem, typically arranged in a cylinder around the hydrome. The stereids are collectively known as the sterome
      - True tracheids have been defined as single-celled conduits with lignified and ornamented walls, either banded or pitted. The main functions of tracheid cells are to transport water and inorganic salts, and to provide structural support for trees
      - Sieve cells are long, conducting cells in the phloem that do not form sieve tubes. Sieve cells are flanked with albuminous cells in order to aid in transporting organic material.
      - Sieve tube elements are modified for bulk transport of photosynthate from source (such as a leaf) to sink (such as a developing fruit).
      - Angiosperms are the flowering plants and the group is one of the last to have arrived.
    - - #
  - - - Secondary tissues are defined as those tissues produced by two lateral meristems, the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. These two tissues, like the apical meristems, are perpetually embryonic, and will continue to produce new tissues (secondary tissues) each year over the lifespan of the perennial plant
        
        the lateral meristems produce secondary tissues, which adds to the girth of the plant body (including roots!).
        
        the apical meristems produce primary tissues that add to the height (and depth) of the plant body each year,
      - Secondary xylem is the tissue we refer to as "wood", and perennial plants that have secondary growth are referred to as being "woody" instead of herbaceous
      - The vascular cambium is a layer of undifferentiated, meristematic cells between the xylem and phloem, which adds new secondary xylem to the inside and secondary phloem to the outside each growing season
      - Bark includes all tissues outside the vascular cambium: phloem, cortex, and periderm. As secondary growth increases the girth of the plant, the epidermis and cortex are stretched and eventually torn apart
      - One of the most important functions of the rays is the transport of metabolic waste products to the xylem at the center of the tree, where they are stored permanently. This (usually) dark colored, waste storage area of the tree is called heartwood, and can no longer function in water conduction
      - Hardwood is the wood of flowering trees, i.e. woody eudicots, such as maple and oak.
      - Softwood is the wood of conifers, such as pine and fir
  - - - Roots are thought to have evolved independently in the lycophyte and euphyllophyte clades. Genetic and fossil evidence indicate that roots are likely derived from shoots
      - All land plants (Embryophytes) have apical meristems, perpetually embryonic tissues
        
        multicellular apical meristems at stem and root tips continually undergo mitosis. Some of the resulting cells remain meristematic, but others differentiate into three transition tissues:
        
        Procambium
        
        vascular tissues (xylem and phloem)
        
        ground meristem
        
        ground tissue
        
        Protoderm
        
        epidermis
      - Actively growing roots are responsible for water and mineral uptake. The roots are distinguishable by the many root hairs that are exceedingly elongated, thin walled, extremely delicate epidermal cells.
      - Notice that there is another area of ground tissue in the center, the pith, that is surrounded by vascular tissue.
  - - - cohesion tension theory
    - - cohesion tension theory
        
        The cohesiveness of the water molecules to one another and adhesiveness to xylem cell walls “pulls” them through the plant body as other water molecules evaporate from cell walls in the leaf mesophyll, exit the leaf via the stomata, and enter the atmosphere
        
        Transpiration is the process whereby water evaporates from a plant and into the air through
        openings in the leaf called stomata
      - Factors that can affect water potential gradients and transpiration include the solutes in water, soil, or plant tissues, atmospheric relative humidity, and temperature.
      - Photorespiration typically halves the amount of energy stored compared to cyclic photophosphorylation
  - - - Spermatophyta, in contrast to cryptogams, reproduce via seed rather than spore. This group includes both gymnosperms (non-flowering) and angiosperms (flowering)
        
        Both groups have vascular tissue, independent sporophyte and reproduce via seeds. The evolution of the seeds was a major advantage, resulting in the protection of the microgametophyte and young sporophyte.
      - Only one of the four megaspores produced via meiosis is retained
      - The megagametophyte remains and develops entirely within the megaspore, and never becomes free-living.
      - The sporophyte embryo remains and develops within the megagametophyte.
      - Sporophyte tissues enclosed the megasporangium, forming integuments around it that will eventually become a protective seed coat. The integuments have only one opening, the micropyle, via which the male can reach the megasporangium.
      - The micropylar apex of the megasporangium is chemically and morphologically modified to better receive microspores/pollen grains.
      - The male is referred to as the microsporophyll and the female as the megasporophyll. The sporangium is a sac like structure adhered to the sporophyll. The microsporangium is underneath the microsporophyll
- - - - Fundamental theory of heredity. Inheritance involves the passing of discrete units of inheritance (genes) from parents to offspring
      - Principle of segregation. During reproduction, the inherited factors (alleles) that determine traits are separated into reproductive cells by a process called meiosis
      - Principle of independent assortment. Genes located on different chromosomes will be inherited independently
    - - 𝛘2=⅀[(O-E)2/E]
        
        the critical value we look for in chi squared test is .05 (5%)
        
        t if the probability is less than 0.05, then the deviation is significant and not due to chance
        
        if the deviation is greater than 0.05, then the deviation is not significant
  - - - each individual contributes two alleles to the population’s gene pool for each gene in the genome. If the individual has the homozygous dominant genotype at a given locus, they contribute two dominant alleles to the population gene pool. A heterozygote contributes one dominant allele and one recessive allele. A homozygous recessive individual contributes two recessive alleles to the population gene pool.
    - - The evolutionary processes of mutation, natural selection, gene flow (emigration and immigration), and genetic drift are what drive microevolution
    - - Middle peak gets taller
    - - population shifts toward one extreme
    - - both extremes become more common