Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Geography AS level, : - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Population density - The number of people in a given area per square km
        
        Densely populated (East USA)
        
        Coastal area
        -Trade
        
        Recreation
        
        Climate
        
        Water
        
        Resources
        
        Sparsely populated (Central South america)
        
        Forests
        
        climate
        
        Movement
        -Mosquitoes
        Deserts
        -Extreme climates
        
        Polar
        -Hot
        -lack of food
      - Natural population Change
        
        Birth Rates/ Fertility rates
        
        Enviromental - Pollution levels can affect fertility and womans fecundity in an area
        
        Social - Tradition or cultures can be against the abortion of children. Some less developed countries expect a high fertility rate from woman and people have more children to account for the expected deaths of some.
        Birth control or other contraceptives are also looked down at by religions such as catholitism or islam.
        in LEDC's there is less education, especially to woman, so they are not m,ade aware of contraceptives
        
        Economic - Children are seen as an economic asset as they can work. They are also concieved with the idea of them caring of theur elderly eventually
        
        Political - Governments can either try to increase it by giving benefits to larger families, or decrease it, like the one child policy in china During 1930s, germany, Italy and Japan all introduced concessions for larger families to encourage people to raise the birth rates
        
        Death Rates
        
        Enviromental - Cancer levels can rise because of poor air quality. Crowded and unsanitare areas can also lead to the spread of infectous diseases.By the 1990's russia had the highest levels in peacetime of death rates in the 20th century. Rates of cancer and heart diseases were the highest of any indutralized ciuntry
        
        Social - Heart disease is a killer in many areas were the diet is not looked after.
        More or less acces to health care and medicines.
        Better or worse water supply
        spread of AIDs because of poor education or no belief in protection
        Between 1980and 2000 the spread of AIDs in Botswana caused the rise of death rates in both male and female - 61% - 51% respectively
        
        Economic - Poverty can raise it as people lack the money to purchase essentials
        
        Political - War can obviously raise the death rate
      - Population structure and Pyramids.
        
        Dependants - Can divide in two groups . Young dependants from 0-18 and elderly dependants from 65+.
        These dependend on the economically active
        
        Economically active - range from 18-65
      - Population distrubition - How people are spread out across an area
    - - Demographic transition model - Shows a generalization on how death rates burth rates and population growth changes over time
        
        Stage 1
        
        High death and birth rates because of sporadic wars and famines
        Population is dependant on agriculkture as there is no indutralization yes
        Population growth is slow
        
        Stage 2
        
        Death rates lower and life expectancy increases due to better healthcare and nutrition.
        Birth rates continue high
        Rural to urban migration and sometimes indutralization occur
        Population growth increases
        
        Stage 3
        
        Birth rates lower due to the use of contraception and the begging of the education of women
        Life expecatncy increases
        Infant mortality decreses
        Population growth slows down
        
        Stage 4
        
        Birth and death rates are both low
        Birth rates fluctuate due to economic conditions
        Life expectancy increases as age specific mortality decreases
        Population growth is slow
        
        Stage 5
        
        Birth rates fall below death rates due to various factors such as womens choice of careers
        Population growth starts to decrease if net migration is not high enough
        
        Limitations in the DTM
        
        Does not include migration
        
        Assumes that all countries will endure the same stages
        
        Has no time scale
        
        Reasons for birth and death rates are very different in different countries
        
        is there actually a stage 5?
        
        Government interventions/ Sudden spreads of diseases and natural disasters are not taken into account
    - - Causes
        
        Better healthcare - Global life expectancy increased from 46 in 1950 to 71 in 2014 and is expected to raise to 76 in 2050
        
        Good lifestyle
        
        Women staying in education till much longer
        
        Women pursuing careers
        
        Marriage at a later age
        
        Expensive to have children
      - Effects
        
        For the elderly
        
        Living alone
        
        Some cant afford residential services and so they have to spend their life spendings
        
        Judgement
        
        long waits in hospitals
        
        crime and traffic
        
        For the young
        
        Increasing money taxes for elderly
        
        Less money for this groups as more is destined tot he elderly
      - Solutions
        
        Encourage immigration
        
        Raising retirement age
        
        Encourage women to have more children
        
        Raise taxes
        
        Encourage private pensions
        
        Use technology to take care of the elderly and their needs
      - Case study - Japan
        
        Facts
        
        33% of Japans population is over 60
        
        Japan has de world's oldest population, with a median of 46 years
        
        Only 13% of Japans population is younger than 15 - the lowest in the world
        
        Total feritlity rate of 1.4
        
        Japan has incredible respect for their elderlis and takes care of them
        
        Causes
        
        Most of japan population is single because of long work hours and no time to socialize
        
        Good lifestyle and diet
        
        Effects
        
        The government is spending large sums of money to fund pensions, taking care of the elderly and maintainig productivity. And so their debt is big. Gross debt of 200% of economic output. Much greater than the UK's ot germany's
        
        Pension care costs will continue to rise, it is expected that by 2050 70% of government spending will be for debt service and social security spending
        
        Businesses already have a hard time finding new recruits
        
        Solutions
        
        Dating agencies are growing and worried parents are arranging meets for their offsprings
        
        there are already campaigns for women coming back to work after giving birth
        
        There is a campaign to increase innmigration into japan
    - - It is measured with the HDI Human development index that is based on differnt factors
        
        Wealth - Is measured by GDP - Gross Domestic Product that is the total economic value of goods and services produced in a country per annum(year) per number of its population
        
        Health - Measured in life expectancy at birth - the number of years the infant is expected to live
        
        Education - Measured by adult literacy rate - the % of people older than 15 that can both read and write
        Also measured in enrolment in education - looks at the number of people enrolled in primary and seconday school and how long they are expected to be in it.
    - - Food security - Is when all people at all time have acces to suficient, safe and nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life.
        
        Malthus - He suggested the population is growing faster than the amount of resources we can produce
        Suggesting we will hit a point of crisis were people will outgrow the amount of resources
        
        Boserup - She suggested that as the population grew and there was more demand for food and resources this would encourage scientist to develop new solutions
        
        Club of Rome - They suggested that if the population grew so would industry, pollution and resource use, leading the world into a disaster
        
        Causes and consequences of food shortages
        
        about 800 million people in the world suffer from hunger
        
        Human
        
        Overpopulation
        
        More people, resources need to spread out, less for each person
        
        Conflict
        
        Land being damaged (explosives, mining)
        
        “Scorched earth”
        
        Less farmers
        
        Food to army first
        
        Infrastructure
        
        Urbanising
        
        Bad roads, no access to farms
        
        Overgrazing
        
        Cows , sheep, goats
        
        Eating the crops, grass
        
        Compacts land, making it impermeable
        
        Human
        
        Soil erosion
        
        Food prices
        
        Cant afford it
        
        Pollution
        
        Damaged or poisoned
        
        Overcultivation
        
        Less fertile soil, cant grow as much food
        
        Monoculture
        
        Growing one type of crop - can lead to diseases
        
        Corruption
        
        Food not shared equally
        
        Physical
        
        Pest and diseases
        
        Locusts, snails, moss, rats
        
        Eat the crops
        
        Diseases turn crops bad so they cant be consumed
        
        Rainfall
        
        No rainfall - dry out (Drought)
        
        Flooding - drowns the crops
        
        Natural disasters
        
        Tornado, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanos, hurricanes
        
        Temperature
        
        Too cold -. frost
        
        Too hot - gets too dry
        
        Soil fertility
        
        Infertile - cant grow crops
        
        Case study - Sudan and south Sudan
        
        Causes
        
        Civil war between the government and rebel fighters in Darfur for over 20 years now
        
        War forced people to leave their homes and so food production fell and they now rely on food imports
        
        A lot of government money was invested on milotary rather than on food
        
        There has been a lng decline on rainfall in south sudan leading to crop failure
        
        Increase use of marginal land leading to overgrazing and degradation
        
        flooding
        
        Limited acces to markets to buy food or infraestructure to distribute it.
        
        Consequences
        
        These food shortages have lead to a famine and so malnutrition
        
        People suffering from malnutrition are more vulnerable to diseases
        
        Starved people have less work ability
        
        Malnutrition has meant than more than 70000 people have died from hunger in Sudan
    - - A Population Policy - Any policy intorduced by a governmet with the aim to change the population's growth, distribution or composition
        
        Anti-Natalist : Policies to encourage people to have less children
        
        China's one child policy
        
        Causes
        
        In 1949 Population growth is encouraged in China for economic and military reasons.
        Abortions are banned and families are payed for each child
        
        In 1954 China's population reached 600 million - Governemnt started worrying over supplies -So in 1956 China's first birth control policy is introduced
        
        But in 1958 china wanted to reach the industralized , more advanced nations levels such as the USA . The Government was worried over labour shortages and so encouraged births again
        
        In early 1960's A famine hit china and caused more than 20 million deaths. Governemt introduced the birth control policy once again to stop food shortages
        
        1970s birth control policy is abandoned and birth rates peak at 45/1000
        
        1979 One child policy is introduced
        
        Consequences
        
        Positive
        
        Chinese demographers say that the policy was succesfull in preventing at least 300million births
        
        By 2005 the population growth rate had fallen to 0.65%
        
        Birth rates fell from 45/1000 in the 1970s to 13.6/1000 in 2005
        
        Negative
        
        The desire to have a boy has led to selective abortions after screenings to ensure a son is born
        
        This has led to an unbalanced sex ratio of 119 boys to 100 girls
        
        China has 32 million more men aged under 20 than women
        
        Generation of spoilt only children
        
        Many males will not find parterns, bare branches
        
        4-2-1 issue were 1 child is left to care for 2 parents and 4 grandparents
        
        Pro-Natalist: Policies to encourage people to have more children
        
        Franco
  - - - Migration - Is the movement of people across a specific boundary in order to establish a new place of permanent recidence
        
        Why Migrate? - Lee's Push and Pull Theory
        
        Push factors - Something percived as negative in the place of origin of the migrant that pushes them to leave
        
        Unemployment
        
        Low wages
        
        War
        
        Poverty
        
        Concerns about security
        
        Pull factors - Something percieved as positive in another place the migrant isnt in that entices said migrant to move to that area.
        
        Employment
        
        Good healthcare
        
        Fertile Land
        
        Climate
        
        Education
        
        Intervining Obstacles - Are barriers either physical or social that prevent the flow of migrants reaching their destination
        
        "Closing up" your life in your origin country. For example, selling a house can cost time and fees to pay
        
        Actual transport costs
        
        "Opening up" costs, there are fees to buying new properrty in other areas
        
        Distance and any landsacpe physical barrier such as a mountain range, a river o even an ocean
        
        Human danger along the borders, were people fleeing from one place to another encounter bandits for example waiting to rob them in both sides of the border
        
        Government immigration laws - such as visas that are not very often granted.
        
        Skills required for visa - In some countries such as Canada, a skill test is there and only a certain level of skill gets the visa
        
        Migratory types
        
        Primitive - Shifting cultivation and traditional nomadic like gypsies
        
        Forced - Were people from said country have no choice but to move because of a war, religious persecution, politics etc
        
        Impelled - Were the movement isnt forced but people feel the need to before things get bad
        
        Free - Moving voluntarily for a better quality of llife
        
        Mass - A lot of people from the same area moving to another specific area
        
        Migration Models
        
        Ravestein's - Migration is usually urban to rural and in small steps at a time . Only young adults move
        
        Lee's - Look below
        
        Todaro's - Suggests a migrant weights costs and benefits before moving because they are aware that moving to x place costs certain money and that they probably wont make money in x place for a while, but when they do, this money will compensate the loss.
        He suggests migrants know this thanks to friends and families experiences
        
        Stark's - Like todaros but extended to a household level were a family spends all their money on one childs upbringing, they help him financially set up in an urban settlement while they stay in the rural settlement. The child keeps inj contact and eventually sends remmitances from said job. Th e quality of life of the family increases and they are able to invest in all their other children
        
        Marxist - Most migration from LEDCs to MEDCs is because of the cheaper migrant labour for capitalist big companies
    - - Rural -Rural
      - Rural - Urban
      - Urban -Rural
      - Urban - Urban
      - Heriarchy
        
        Isolated Housing
        
        Hamlet
        
        Village
        
        Town
        
        City
        
        Conurbation
      - Reasons
        
        Distance - The cost to travel is often too high, so staying in the same country lowers it
        
        Direction - there is a usual pattern of steppes migration from rural to urban
        
        Rural - arural is often seen more in developing countries because of marriage, employment or family reunions
        
        The gravity concept - a large city is more likely to attract an individual than a hamlet
      - Case study - Mongolia
        
        Causes
        
        mean monthly temperature of 1cº over the whole country during nov to march
        
        late spring and early autumn frosts leave a short growing season of about 80-100 days
        
        the average annual precipitation is very low, with 125 mm in the gobi desert
        
        preci`pitation is very unevenly distributed between june to august
        
        strong winds in spring result in soil erosion and high evaporation
        
        Effects
        
        Growth of Ulaanbaatar
        
        50% of mongolias gdp 1.5 billion and 30% of industrial outputis attributed to ecnonmic activities in Ulaanbaatar
        
        Population in ulaanbaatar has grown from 100000 in 1956 to 1million in 2007
        
        Current population growth rate in ulaanbaatar is of 2.5 per annum
        
        80% of recent population growth in ulaanbaatar has been thanks to in-migration
        
        Negative effects
        
        35 out of 100 people in mongolia live in poverty, and more than 50% of the population lives in poor ger districts
        
        Lack of green spaces - affects on the quality of life
        
        All aspects of infraestructure are innadequate
        
        30% of migrants coming into ulaanbaaatar are in schooling age
  - - - Characteristics
        
        Close knit community
        
        Less population desnsity
        
        More detached housing
        
        Less infraestructure
        
        Open, green spaces, more relief
        
        Primary sector jobs mainly
        
        Agriculture
      - Changes
        
        causes
        
        Migration
        
        Rural/Urban
        
        Urban/Rural
        
        Negative
        
        Public and private serives close down as population declines
        
        As migrants are usually young adults, the populatiuon left in rural settlements is ageing
        
        Agricultural production reduces as there is few working hands as they have all migrated
        
        Government development schemes often focus in urban areas rather than on rural areas and they are forgotten
        
        Ntural resources and land is often occupied by big companies with no enviromental concerns as the rural population sells or has little to no property rights
        
        Positive
        
        As rural population declines, the pressure on resources like food or water also reduces
        
        Less unemployment
        
        Remmitances from those family members who have moved to the city reach the rural poipulation and improve their quality of life.
        
        Urban growth
        
        Development in technology
        
        Rural planning policies
        
        Government funding
        
        Economy in rural areas is no longer dominated by farming, manufacturing high tech and the service sector has been introduced
        
        New users in ruarl spaces like tourism, recreation and conservation
        
        More services
        
        Changes in MEDC's - Rural idyll
        
        Gentrification -.The countryside was repopulated by middle calss citizens circa 60's 70's taking adavantage of the cheaper housing.
        They now have a strong oinfluence on the areas they have moved into in terms of services provided
        
        The economy is no longer dominated by agriculture - Even though 73% of the land area in the uk is farmland, less than 2% of the UK's workforce is employed in agriculture
        
        Farm diversification .- Because farmers are struggling to make a living traditionallly with their farmlands, they find ways to use the land and gain additional income such as renting the land for camping por giving tours of it
        
        Higher housing prices - As more and more ,middle class population has moved to rural areas, the demand for housing there increases, and so do the prices, this means that some original families of said rural area cannot afford their own house anymore
        
        Fromation of suburbanised metropolitan villages - As a result of counterurbanisation were people have moved from the city to the countrysude, vilages have popped up around the city were people have moved to enjoy the Rural idyll but still be able to commute to work or other services in the city
        
        Declie of rural services - Services such as shops or banks have been declining in rural areas in MEDCs for a long time now
        
        Reduction of public transport - the increase of car ownership in the last few decades has resulted in this, which bresult in peoplke without a car becoming isolated
        
        Case study - Isle of Purbeck
        
        Issues
        
        Birth Rate in 2001 was 10.1/1000 while death rate was 11.9/1000 - Causing a natural decrease
        
        Housing prices have risen exponentially over the national average in the last decade, so housing is now well beyond the reach of local people (There are few job opportunities and low wages)
        
        Services have declined over the last few decades
        
        3 out of 4 villages dont have general store
        
        38 rural post offices, 35 rural petrol stationds and 8 village pubs have closed
        
        People are now more reliant on public and private transport to get theur services elsewhere
        
        Only 4 bus routes for the whole area
        
        Rail travel is also limited
        
        Lack of opportunities for health and social services, education and retail, which disadvantages local people
        
        Many low income houses have no choice but to spend a lot of their money on a car due to the lack of public transport
        
        Causes
        
        Rich inmigrants and second home owners buying in the area
        
        The population is older in Purbeck compared with the UK because it is a popular destination for retirement
        
        Population has risen over the last 40 years
        
        Increased competition from urban supermarkets,
        
        Increased mobility of car owners
        
        Those who have migrated into the isle of Purbeck have a higher income
        
        Solutions
        
        Purbeck Community Partership has been set up by the governmenmt. They ask locals for ideas on what problems need solving in the area
        
        Assist farmers in getting funding to diversify their business
        
        Re-coonect Swanage to the main road
        
        Encourage car sharing
        
        Investigate opportunities for low cost affordable housing with housing companies
        
        Offer grants or loans to small businesses to help provide new services
        
        Develop training courses for locally unemployed people
        
        Provide more transport for elderly immobiple residents
    - - The cycle of urbanisation
        
        The increase of the people living in towns and cities due to the industrial revolution
        
        Suburbanisation commences as urban areas spread out because of railways, tha allow people to live further away from home
        
        Counterurbanisation is started as more people leave the city to move to they quieter countryside
        
        Reurbanisation is as people commence to mpove back into the city thanks to redevelopment and reduction of crime.
      - Deprivation in the inner city
        
        Causes
        
        Industry declining
        
        Large areas in the city abandoned
        
        The vibe of the city is ruined and so people decide to move to the much nicer suburbs
        
        Solutions
        
        Regeneration - A mixture of both
        
        Redevelopment - Clearing out completely the area and constructing again
        
        Renewal - Taking best elements of the existing enviroments and adapting them to great usages
        
        Case study - London Docklands.
        
        Causes
        
        After ww2 the docklands were left very bombed
        
        They were rebuilt to keep the flow of money
        
        After the birth of container transportation theyv were left forgotten
        
        Effects
        
        The London dockland development corporation was created as they saw potential for flats for upcoming young population because of the proximity of the docklands to london
        
        Michel Von Clemm, an american banker, saw the huge potential too and had the idea of canary wharf
      - Global cities
        
        These are judged to be an important nodal point in the world's economy
        
        Demography - natural increase and inmigration at different points in time
        
        Economy - Development of TNC Trans national corporations , develepments of key transports and coastal area
        
        Politics - governments can change the capital city if they wish to develop that area more.Capitals benefit fro high levels of infrestructure
        
        Social / Cultural status - past colonial influences had already put the bases down for a city. Social and culture is important for touridm and visitors
        
        Heriarchy
        
        Alpha -
        
        Rome
        
        Lisbon
        
        Alpha
        
        Madrid
        
        Moscow
        
        Alpha +
        
        Paris
        
        Hong Kong
        
        Alpha ++
        
        London
        
        New york
    - - Burgess - rings
      - Hoyt - wedges
      - Multi-nuclei - all over the place tbh
      - Case study - Cairo - egypt
        
        Issues
        
        Lack of housing - 80% of cairos housing is illegally built on farmlands near the nile
        
        Congestion - infraestructure was designed for a much smaller population of 2 million in contrast to cairos population of 9.61 million
        
        High levels of pollution
        
        daily commute can be up to 90 mins
        
        Solutions
        
        100 km ring road surrounding the city
        
        More lines for the metro and buses
        
        invested largely in public transport
        
        Sattelite and dormitory towns are being built
        
        the greater cairo wastewater project is being extended and is repairing the sewage systmen
      - Case study - Favelas in Brazil
        
        Causes
        
        Slavery in rio in the 1800's, after being freed, freedmen were rejected and neglected to many rights and so they built this informal communities.
        
        Lack of economic growth
        
        Income inequality
        
        Lack of affordable housing
        
        Poverty
        
        In-Migration
        
        Solutions
        
        Provide education for favela children
        
        Install clean water and sewage systems
        
        Install safe electricity
        
        Replace scrap materials with proper building ones to reinforce them
        
        Paint the favelas to make them look better
        
        Employ more police with better equipment
        
        Case study - Rio de Janeiro olympics 2016
        
        Negatives
        
        Opposition to the olympics
        
        Building stadiums meant less money for schools and hospitals
        
        People wre forced out of their housing to build stadiums and some never recieved compensation
        
        Claims about corrupt politicians pocketing a lot of the monry made from the olympics
        
        The cost of building the facilities nearly tripled up to 900 million in public funds
        
        Positives
        
        Improved infraestructure
        
        Invested largely on security
        
        Some favelas were cleared from drug dealers, meaning that the communities coulkd now leave at peace
        
        Up to 80000 additional jobs were created by tourism related areas, all attributed to the 2016 olympics.
        
        Investment in public transportation
        
        The olympics served as a huge advertisement for Brazil, rio and its surrounding cities, making it look like a great place to visit.
        
        Issues In the favelas
        
        Lack of sanitation and proper water supply are responsible for 88% of child deaths because of deseases like diahorrea, and estimated to cause up tp 3000 child deaths per day
        
        Urban populations have increases from 70% to 80% since 1990, this kind of rapid influx leaves governments struggling to build adequate infraestructure in such little time
        
        Illegal neighbourhoods are not cared about by the government, so there is no proper sewage, water or electricity system. Rubbish collection is also non-existant, so diseases like cholera are very common
        
        The average population density in favelas is of abput 37000 people per square kilometer, making the overcrowding with the open sewage system a reason why diseases spread as fast as they do
        
        Over the last cventuries favelas have been taken over by drug lords, who establish control over them and often deny residents basic ammenities. Companies often refuse service to favelas in fear of their employee's safety
        
        Residents often resort to unorthodox methods to get ammenities such as electricity, stealing it from cables overhead, increasing the risk of electrocution.
        
        Solutions to them
        
        An electicity company, light, invested in replacing old electrical applieances such as lioghbulbs or refrigerators with new, more energy efficient ones. Bills get more affordable and peopole can actually pay them
        
        If favela people can now pay ebergy bills, they can also open bank accouints, wivh means new economic and social opportunities such as entrepenourship or training. they are not longer treated as informal people but as citizens
- - - - Flows
        
        Groundwater flow - The movement of water througuh the rocks towards the surface
        
        Throughflow - Movement of water through the soil towards the surface
        
        Surface Runoff - Movement of water over the surface
        
        Throughfall/Stem flow - Movement of water through vegetation
        
        Infiltration - Movemetn of water through the soil depending on the permeablity of it
        Porosity .- The spaces between the molecules
        Pervious - The steucture ans spaces between the rock itself
        
        Percolation - Movement of water down the soil towars the permeable rocks
      - Stores
        
        Groundwater store - Held by impermeable rock, fporms aquifers and water tables
        
        Surface store - A puddle or a lake in the surface
        
        River channel
        
        Soil storage - The water stored in the soil
        
        Interception - Water intercepted by plants
    - - Parts Of a Hydrograph
        
        Rising limb -
        
        Recession Limb -
        
        Peak Dischareg -
        
        Lag Time -
        
        Recovery rate -
        
        Overland Flow -
        
        Through Flow -
        
        Base Flow -
      - Factors affecting a Hydrograph
        
        Temperature, evaporation, evapotranspiration, transpiration - Temperature affects the rate of all of them
        
        Antedecent moisture - if there has been antecedent rainfall, the ground is already saturated with water, rainfall will quickly produce overland flow a high peak flow and short lag time
        
        Precipitation - Low or high intensity rainfall are likely to have diff. effects.
        
        High intense rainfall - Preoduce overland flow steep rising limb and high peak discharge
        
        Low intensity rainfall is likely to infiltrate and or percolate, increasing lag time and reducing peak flow
        
        Snow - sits on the ground till it melts, sudden melting can cause floodings and lead to high rates of overland flow and high peak flows
        
        Rock type - Impermeable rocks such as clay produce bigger peak flows and less lag time, permeable rocks do the opposite
        
        Size and shape - smaller drainage basins respond more quickly to rainfall such as bostcastle in 2004, peak flow occured soon after peak storm. Circular basins also repond quicker than linear.
        
        Drainage density - Basins with a high drainage density (Sewers and drains) respond quicker than the ones with not, that have a longer lag time
        
        Porosity and impermeability of rocks and soils - impermeable surfaces cause more overland flow, and so bigger peak flows
        
        Slopes - Steeper slopes create more of an overland flow, shorter lag times and bigger peak flows
        
        Vegetation type - forest intercepts more rainfall, and so reduces the amount of overland flow and peak flow and increases the lag time. In winter trees loose leaves and so, intercpt less.
        
        Land use - some of them can increase impermeable surfaces and reduce vegetation cover, this reduces interception and increases overland flow. If more drainage channles like sewers are built in, these also carry water to the river quickly.
    - - Erosion
        
        Hydraulic Action - The force of water itslef
        
        Abrasion - Rocks knock and weaken the river beds
        
        Attrition - Rocks get smaller when knocked togetrher
        
        Corrosion - Chemkicals in the water corrode the rocks
        
        Cavitation - Air Bubbles get compressed into small spaces like cracks and eventually implode, creating a small shock wave and weakening the river bed/banks
      - Transportation
        
        Traction - Sediment rolling downstream
        
        Saltation - Sediment skipping along the river bed
        
        Suspension - Sediment being so fine it can be carried by the water
        
        Solution - Sediment being dissolved in the water
      - Deposition
        
        A shallowing gradient, which decreases velocity and energy
        
        A decrease in the volume of water in the channel
        
        An increase in the friction between the water and the channel
      - The Hjulström Curve
        
        Shows the relationship between the critical erosion velocity and grain size. The critical erosion velocity is the lowest velocity at wich a ceratain size of sedimet grain can be moved
      - River flow
        
        The velocity and energy of a stream is controlled by
        
        the gradient of the bed
        
        the amount of water in the channel
        
        the shape opf the channel
        
        channel roughness
        
        Patterns of flow
        
        Laminar - Water flows parallel to the river bed in a smooth stright channel
        
        Turbulent - A series of swirls (Eddies) both horizontally and vertically caused by higher velocities and more complex channel morphology
        
        Helicoidal - A corkscrew motion, associated with riffle and pool . The main current hits the outer bank and creates a return floe to ther inner bank.
      - Landforms
        
        Meanders
        Deeper on the outside bank, shallower on the inside. Begin with riffle and pool sequence in a channel that the thalweg (Deepest part of the channel, faster) begins to flow from side to side, helicoidal flow happens and give rise to river cliffs on the outer banks and point bars on the inner bank.
        
        Oxbow lakes
        
        Pool and Riffles Formed by turbulence, the swirls cause depposition of sediment
        
        Waterfalls
        
        Gorges
        
        Levees
        
        Floodplains
        
        Bluffs
        
        Deltas - river sedimets deposited when a river reaches a standing body of water
        
        Bird foot delta - Missisipi
        
        Cuspade delta - Ebro -spain
        
        Arcuate - River nile
        
        Lacustrine - IN lakes - Caspian sea
    - - Causes
        
        Human
        
        Natural
    - - Causes
        
        Physical
        
        3 Major rivers flow through bangladesh:
        The Ganghes, The Meghna and the Brahmaputra
        
        70% of the country is less than 1 meter above sea level - very low lying
        
        Snowmelt in the himalayas during spring and summer
        
        Monsoon season every year from june to september
        
        cyclones that come from the bay of bengal can hit bangladesh and cause storm surges
        
        10 % of Bangladesh is covered by lakes and rivers
        
        Human
        
        Deforestation in head water areas due to increasing population in the tibet and nepal
        
        Increased urbanisation in cities like dhaka
        
        dams in india causing deforestation
        
        growth of shanty towns in flood plains as it is the only accesible land
        
        poorly mantained floor defences
        
        no weather warnings
      - Effects
        
        57% of the land are flooded
        
        Over 1,300 people died
        
        7 million homes destroyed
        
        25 million homeless
        
        Shortages of dry food and drinking water
        
        diseases like cholera spread
        
        as water receded - left rotting drop fields and recked roads and infraestructure
        
        2 million tonnes of rice lost
        
        1/2 million of cattle lost
        
        Overall cost of 1 billion dollars
      - Responses
        
        Houses and roads built on elevated platforms
        
        Plantation of rice that can still grow under 1 meter of floodwater and can grow up to 20 cm a day to keep up with the rising water
        Jute and sugar cane also planted
        
        Flood action plan 1989 - 1995
        
        Bangladesh water and flood management strategy report
        Imporve forecasting up to 5 days
        protect densely populated areas, key infraestructure and water supplies
        
        Over 10000 km of levees built and multiple cyclone elevated shelters
  - - - Oceanic crust
        
        5-7km thick
        
        Basaltic
        
        Younger
        
        Denser 3g
      - Continental crust
        
        Thicker 70 km
        
        Granite
        
        Older
        
        Less dense 2.8 g/cm^3
      - Continental drift is the idea that the surface of the earth is made up of large plates that are in constant motion
        
        This is caused by convection currents beneath the plates
        
        Evidence includes
        
        Fossils are found in different continents, suggesting that they were once together For example the mesosaurus found in South America and africa
        
        Geology - Rock type and structure matches up in different coasts of different continents
        
        Sea floor rising - the atlantic floor is rising a few cm per year
        
        The coasts of continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle
        
        Paleomagnetism - The earth magentic poles keep changing over time from north to south because lava contains traces of metals.
        Distinct patterns os stirpes can be seen when lava hardens creating land from where the sea floor is spreading
      - Types of plate tectonics
        
        Constructive
        
        Mid-oceanic ridges
        
        Volcanoes on the ocean floor
        
        New islands
        
        Destructive
        
        Subduction zones
        
        Ocean trenches
        
        Fold mountains
        
        Island arcs
        
        Conseravtive
        
        Shock waves
        
        Faults
    - - Physical
        
        freeze-thaw - water infiltrates a crack in a rock, freezes overnight, which causes it to expand and so exerts pressure on the rock. It then melts and this process is repeated various times.
        
        Heating and cooling - The outside layers of a rock heat and expand, they then cool down and contracts, this happens numerous times, causing granular disintigration
        
        Salt crystalisation - salt water seeps through a crack of a rock, the water evaporates but the salt stays, expandind because of the heat causing pressure on the joints and so they also crack
        
        Pressure release - Something that was previously exerting pressure on an underlying rock has now gone away, taking off the pressure from said rock causing it to expand and fracture.
        
        Vegetation/Root action - The roots of a plant get into a fault and as they grow they exert pressure on said rock.
      - Chemical
        
        Hydrolisis - Affects rocks containing feldspar such as granite, that reacts with acid water.
        
        Carbonisation - affects carbonate rocks such as chalk or limestone, rainfall combines with calcium carbonate and forms a weak acid - calcium bicarbonate.
        
        Hydration - Affects salts as it makes them expand, like clay, gypsum or mudstone.
      - Factors affecting weathering
        
        Climate
        
        Temperature
        
        Precipitation
        
        Rock type
        
        Rock structure
        
        Porosity
        
        Faults
        
        Vegetation
        
        Relief
        
        Mountainside
        
        Flat terrain
    - - Influences
        
        Climate - it affects the weathrring of the slope, humid areas are more prone to certain types of mass movement
        
        Rock type - Is important on slope developmemt, wethger is affected by weathering and how much shear strenght it has
        
        Soil - The structure and texture of it will determine the amount of water it can hold
        
        Vegetation - Can intercept and store moisture
      - Mass Movements - Are large scale movements that are not accompained by a moving agent such as river
        
        Creeps - Moisture changes
        
        Flows - Clay absorbs water, becomes saturated and exceeds its liquid limit, so niut flows along
        
        Slides -
        
        Falls
    - - The human impact
        
        Building
        
        Piling up material on top a slope, increasing shear stress
        
        Excavation
        
        Undercutting - reducing shear strenght
        
        Drainage
        
        Agriculture
      - Reducing mass movements.
        
        Pinning - To attach net wiring to a rock face so that rocks dont fall and erosion is less
        
        Netting - Helps collect fragments of the falliugn slope - Used in areas of high risk or rock falling and tourism
        
        Grading - Re-ptofilimng slopes so that they become more stable
        
        Afforestation - Planting new trees so that their roots not oinly absorb and store excess moinsture, but so they can alspo compact soil together making it more stable.
    - - In June 1966, rainfall triggered massive landslides that killed 64 people. Over 2500 were made homeless and a further 8000 were evacuated.
      - Over 1650mm of rain had fallen, compared with 130mm in a normal year.
      - Hong Kong has a long history of landslides - largely due to a combination of high rainfall, steep slopes and dense human developments on the islands. Between 1947 and 1997, more than 470 people died as a result of landslides.
      - The Hong Kong Government has a responsibility to manage landslides. The Slope Safety System is managed by the Geotechnical Engineering Office of the Civil Engineering Development.
  - - - Day time energy budgets
        
        Incoming shortwave/solar radiation (INSOLATION)
        
        Reflected solar radiation
        
        Surface absortion
        
        Sendible heat transfer
        
        latent heat
      - Night time energy budgets
        
        Long wave infrared radiation
        
        latentheat transfer
        
        Absorbed energy returned to earth
        
        sensible heat transfer
        
        Factors affecting both
        
        Cloud cover -
        On daytime, if no cloud cover, a lot more insolation can reach the earth, if alot of cloud cover, the insolation bounces off them.
        On night time if a lot of cloud cover, the clkouds act as a blanket and keep the infrared long wave radiation in, if no cloud cover, they can escapoe easily
        
        Mist
        
        Fog
        
        Dew
        
        Temeprature inversions
    - - Variations in the recipt of insolation
        
        Excess (Positive balance) - Ecuator
        
        Areas that are closer to the equator recieve more heat than the ones closer to the poles because:
        1 - Insolation, short wave radiation is concentrated near the equator but dissapears at the poles
        2- Insolation near the poles has to pass through a lot more amount of atmosphere and so there is more chance of it being reflected to outer space
        
        Deficit (negative budget) - Poles
      - Atmospheric transfers
        
        Air pressure - The density of air decreases with altitude because at the same volume contains fewer molecules of the gases that make up this air (The higher the air the less dense it is)
        
        global air patterns
        
        Hadley cell 0º - 30º
        
        0º low pressure
        
        Ferrel cell 30º-60º
        
        30º - high pressure
        
        Polar cell 60º - 90º
        
        90º - high pressure because of cold air sinking down
        
        60º - low pressure because polar front
        
        The higher the temperature of air, the more energy the molecules have and so, the mpore they s`pread around and move. The lower the temperature of air, the slower the molecules move so they clump togethger, making this air denser.
        The lower the temperature the denser the air
        
        The upward movement of air (Hotter) has a lifting effect and so less pressure, the downward movement of air (Colder) has a piling effect resulting in more pressure.
        
        Different areas of the earth have different cooling and heating rates because of what they are made of. Land or water.
        
        Land has a faster heating rate because it is a solid made out of rock, which is a very poor conductor, and so, even though it heats faster it also cools faster as it looses all its heat.
        
        This results in sea breezes, as the air over the water is cooler, so denser, and moves under the less dense, hotter air overland
        
        Water has a slower heating rate because of its liquid state, meaning that is easily ,mixed and can keep cool for much longer.
        Same property goes with cooling rate, water stays hot for much longer because of convection
      - Insolation falls more directly in the side of a mountain than in a valley, which results in differential heating. The valey recieves a more spread out insolation
        
        This results in uphill mouintain breeze during the day
        
        During the night, dense cool air flows downslope for a reverse wind pattern.
    - - Atmospheric moisture process
        
        Evaporation
        
        Condensation
        
        Melting
        
        Freezing
        
        Sublimination
        
        deposition
      - Precipitation
        
        Rain
        
        Oropgraphic rainfall - Occurs when air meets a mountain and it is forced upwards, as it is it cools down and condenses the water it was carrying, and forms rain - HIMALAYAS
        
        Frontal or cyclonic rainfall - Occurs when a mass of warm air is met with a mass of cold air, and it is forced to rise over it as it is less dense and lighter. as it rises it cools, condenses and forms rain -POLAR FRONT
        
        Convectionall rainfall - Land becomes very hot and heats the air above it, that rises. As it rises it cools and condenses. As it continues to rise, rain will fall TROPICAL AREAS SUCH AS THE AMAZON.
        
        Hail
        
        Hail is alternate concentric rings of clear and opaque ice formed by drops being carried up and down in cumunolimbus clouds
        
        Snow
        
        Fog
        
        Dew
    - - Natural causes
        
        Milankovtch cycles
        Change in the eccentricity of the earth (Orbit)
        Change in the earth obliquity (Tilt)
        
        Volcanic eruptions
        
        Surface impacts
        
        Evidence
        
        Tree rings
        
        ice cores
        
        historical sources
      - Human causes
        
        Industrial revolution - all halocarbons increase dramatically from 1750- all industry and transport is built AROUND THEM
        
        Population Increase - Exponentially, meaning more wealth and consumer demands, meaning more industry and so more halocarbons
        
        Deforestation - Trees act as a carbon sink that turns co2 into h2o
        
        Agriculture - Massive driver of methane
        
        Transportation - Especially aircrafts, burn fossil fuels
        
        Evidence displays that as population grows, so do emissions, and as emissions grow so do the temperatures.
    - - Occur from extra sources of heat in cities such as cars , tarmac, buildings.
        
        release of pollutants help keep the radiation in
      - Moisture and humidity
        
        Lack of vegetation
        
        High drainage density
        
        effects
        
        More intense storms because of more instability and stronger convection
        
        More thunder but less snow
        
        Thicker cloud cover in the summer and fog in the winter.
      - Urban heat island effect
        
        London