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paper 1 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - divided into 2 hemispheres, each divided into 4 lobes
        left: controls right side of body + likewise = contralateral control
        left: calculations right: creativity
        
        frontal lobe- higher cog functions eg problem solving, decision making
        
        parietal lobe- processes info from senses, important in language processing
        
        occipital lobe- visual processing of into- visuo-spatial, colour diff, motion perception
        
        temporal lobe- hearing, language, memory
        
        spinal cord- transmission of nerve signals from body to brain
        
        cerebellum- motor control, cood of movements + motor learning
        
        corpus callosum- connects two hemispheres + enables communication between the two "info highway"
        
        thalamus- brain relay station, passes info from senses
        
        hypothalamus- controls hormones, regulates body function
        
        amygdala- emotions, fear responses
        
        hippocampus- learning and memory
        
        basal ganglia- processes info on movement, habit learning and rewards
  - - - 3d scan of brain functions
        inject radioactive tracer into bloodstream with glucose to see what areas of brain are active
        once glucose used, leaves tracer- lvls of activity in parts of brain can be detected
        activity colour coded based on how active it is
        
        +: raine- murderers has asymmetrical functioning of amygdala- pet scans can show diffs in brain
    - - produces multiple images of brain
        xray images from diff angles to produce cross sectional images of specific brain areas
        digital geometry processing used to convert 2d images to create 3d image
        ^ provides info abt abnormalities in brain structure eg amygdala
        
        +: tateno et al- posttraumatic agg more frequent in those w brain injury
    - - measure brain activity, detects changes associated w blood flow in brain
        use strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of brain
        blood flow monitored by monitoring oxygen levels
        oxygenated blood diff texture + colour to deoxygenated- monitoring changes in molecules in blood helps to determine which parts of the brain are most active
        ^ can detect signs of brain disease eg alzheimers
        cant be used by everyone eg pacemaker as affected by magnetic field
        
        +: montag et al- gamers had lower levels of activity in relation to pictures of neg emotion than controls- more agg as brains struggle to process vio images
  - - - dendrites- end of the neuron, makes synaptic connection w another neuron/cell, contains NTs
      - axon- extension of cell body, electrical impulse passes down towards axon terminals
      - cell body- contains nucleus- holds genetic material, contains mitochondria- gives cell energy
      - myelin sheath- fatty deposits that provide insulating layer, speed up transmission
      - nodes of ranvier- break along myelin sheath- speeds up transmission
      - axon terminals- receive msgs from other neurons to trigger action potential (electrical impulse)
    - - electrical impulse triggered due to change in charge in neuron- action potential
        
        electrical signal reaches terminal button -> changes to chemical msg
        
        chemical msg is a nt which is released fro vesicles
        
        nt travels across synapse to next neuron
        
        nt binds with receptors on next neuron to pass msg on
        
        either reabsorbed (reuptake) or destroyed by enzymes in synapse, returning neuron to a resting state
    - - chemical messengers that act between neurons in brain- allows brain to process thoughts and memories
        released into synaptic gap + taken up by receptors of dendrites of another neuron to send/inhibit msg
        these nts then remain in synaptic cleft- either reabsorbed/destroyed
      - examples
        
        dopamine- emotion and cognitive functioning, motivation, addictions
        
        +: carlsson- sz caused by high levels of dopa in basal ganglia- plays role in regulation of cognition
        
        serotonin- regulates mood, deals w feeling, pain, hunger and body temp
        
        higley- rhesus monkeys in wild, those injured in fights more likely to have low serotonin levels (serotonin inhibits agg)
        
        gaba- inhibitory nt that contributes to motor control- reduces activity of any neuron it binds to
  - - - inc amount of dopa in reward pathway- boosts activation of dopaminergic synapses, causing feeling of euphoria
        ^ brain reduces natural lvls of dopa to compensate w excess- when drug leaves system, person left with lower levels of dopamine than normal
        ^ causes dysphoria, motivating to take more heroin to stop feeling bad
        further repetition = further depletion (down regulation) of dopamine stores- reliant on drug to avoid withdrawals
        
        +:li et al- heroin users has higher pcc activity- brains reward pathways do change when taking drugs
        -: jones et al- ppl given placebo experienced a high like cannabis users- addiction is due to cognitive thinking process
    - - affects gaba by increasing action- more effective
        ^ gaba slows down chemical msgs in brain, alcohol slows this even more
    - - blocks reuptake of dopa, noradrenaline and serotonin
        raises synaptic dopamine levels by preventing dopa from being removed from synaptic gap, increasing concentration in synapses
  - - - we change gradually over time- adapt to changes in enviro around us as ensures survival of species
        minor diffs in individuals as we evolve
        reproduction essential for evo- pass genes to next gen
        mind has also evolved to adapt to changing world eg technology
        
        +: mazur- males fight less as grow as often found partner by late 20s
        buss- males prefer younger females as at reproductive peak, but females prefer older, wealthier males as children have more support to survive
        -: dabbs- those with high t levels committed violent crimes
    - - "survival of the fittest"- best characteristics to meet demands of enviro have best chance of surviving + reproducing
        some genes die out if no longer needed
        sexual selection- genes that arent essential being passed on eg attractiveness
    - - males evolved to be bigger and stronger- protect and feed family
        more agg, attack other male to protect family- more attractive to potential mate
        ^ competition for mate = agg
        females less agg- look after children, more emotionally/verbally agg
  - - - trust hormone
        inc prosocial bhvr but inc agg in already agg ppl
        boost of oxytocin causes agg males to be agg to ppl to show dominance
        defensive agg- more agg to those intending to harm eg mother protecting child
        
        +: dewall et al- high oxytocin in males already agg were more likely to be agg towards partners
        -: lane et al- more oxytocin = inc in trustworthiness
    - - androgen that develops and maintains male characteristics
        affects prenatal brain develop in males- inc competitive agg
        exposure to t in utero has sig effect on brain devel- explains m+f diffs in agg
        overproduction causes agg
        
        +: dabbs- saliva samples, male prisoners w higher t levels committed violent crimes
        -: eisenegger et al- gave females t dose, behaved more generous and sociably
    - - "dual-hormone hypothesis"
        protects body against stress
        high agg- low cortisol, high t
        ^ high t blocks influence of t on agg
        
        +: burnett et al- boys w lower cortisol in saliva 3x more agg
        -: shaol et al- inc agg in adolescents w low cortisol may be more associated w lack of self control
  - - - agg- feelings of anger that can result in violent actions- issue if bio as can be used as excuse for crime
      - agg is one of most common consequences of tbi, approx 11-34%
      - williams- 60% of YA males in prison have some sort of tbi
      - men 2x more likely to have tbi than women- explains more men in prison
    - - testosterone- agg when overproduced= agg to show dominance- hormones
      - dmg to right amygdala- deficit in decision making, impulsive
      - dmg to prefrontal cortex- problems w decision making + impulse control- outburst = nurture
      - males evolved to be more agg to survive and pass genes down- nature
    - - testosterone- eisenegger- females given t behaved more generously= not t
      - amygdala- cs of charles whitman- shot 16 ppl at texas uni, found tumour on amygdala = brain structure
      - prefrontal- raine- ngris had lower glucose metab in prefrontal cortex
      - evolution- slt argues observation and imitation of role models causes agg- ignores nurture = low val
  - - - driven by instincts- eros + thanatos
        eros- life instinct, driving force that makes us behave to sustain life + continuation of species- includes bio needs to satisfy sexual instincts, hunger, pain avoidance
        thanatos- destructive force, ppl hold unconscious desire to die- self destructive bhvr is expression of energy created by death instincts
        id is present from birth + origin of all bhvr
        demands immediate gratification of impulses + bio needs + drives, irrespective of whats appropriate in a given situation/consequences of actions
    - - develops from age 2, maintains balance between bio needs (id) + need to follow societal rules (superego)
        logical + rational
        reality principle- find ways to satisfy instincts in socially appropriate ways
        doesnt have morals but controls demands of id thru fantasies of the act eg agg
    - - age 3-6, when we start to develop sense of morality + sense of right and wrong
        represents ideal image we have of ourselves
        morality principl- represents our conscience
        when agg, opposes id with feelings of shame/guilt as not meeting highest moral standards
        demands of superego can be as intense as id
    - - socially acceptable way of taking out agg on another target eg boxing
        if cant demonstrate catharsis, can result in build up of agg that can be focused on us/others eg lashing out
        may "vent" our anger
        
        +: verona et al- heart rate of those who reacted agg when frustrated was reduced compared to those who didnt- agg is cathartic
        -: bandura- agg learned thru observation + imitation- learned not need to release energy
    - - employed by ego to manage agg impulses of id and morality of superego
        displacement- agg u may feel towards someone eg boss can be redirected towards another person eg parent
      - sublimation- satisfy agg urge in acceptable way eg sport
      - projection- attribute own unacceptable throughts onto another eg wrong to hate someone, convince that they hate u so its justified
- - - - Schema- mental rep of info (template) abt specific event/object which we use to understand whats happening in world around us
        use schemata to help us understand new situations, can cause change in stored memories as what we expect to happen affects memory we store abt whats happening
      - Schemata can cause new memory to be accommodated into existing schema as dont deviate from expectations we have of specific situations
        via two ways:
        confabulation- fills gaps in memories to fit in w pre existing schema (expectation) eg heard loud noise after car crash, but behind soundproof glass
        rationalisation- make sense of info based on schema, explain situation in way thats more logical to us + fits in w expectations of what could have happened eg seeing ghost = wind blowing curtain
        
        +: loftus and pickrall- 25% of pets remembered false memory of being lost in shopping mall
        shaw and porter- 70% of ppts in crim condition explained false memory of committing a crime
        -: wynn and logie- uni students recall of first week didnt change over time
        Axelrod- doesn’t account for changes in groups
  - - - +: hm- unable to make new memories after removal of hippocampus, though still had memories up to 16yo before surgery, suggesting still had ltm just couldn’t add to it = separate stores
        -: Bartlett- RM- single store that can later retrieve info from- too complex
  - - - +: KF- dmg to stm after motorcycle accident, affected verbal processing but visual processing largely unaffected = separate stm components
        episodic buffer added later- developed
        -: Lieberman- blind ppl have spacial memory, even tho never had visual info
  - - - Past experiences
      - Unlimited capacity
      - Encoded through smells, visual and emotional state
      - Dependent on cues
      - Can change when recalled
    - - Remembered facts
      - Unlimited capacity
      - Encoded through independent time referencing
      - cue independent
      - Less likely to change on recall
  - - - ewt- info given to police abt what a witness to a crime remembers- if recall inaccurate then wrong person could be convicted
      - 41% of miscarriage of justice in uk is due to unreliable ewt
      - maximum compensation given to those in prison 10+ years is £1 million
      - 2011- 1/3 of wrongfully convicted ppl ended up homeless due to lack of support after release- more likely to reoffend
    - - wmm- vssp and pl can process diff info at same time- reliable
      - rm- schemas can change- unreliable
      - msm- sensory register 2s duration, victim needs to attend to info abt crime- almost impossible during brief encounter- unreliable
      - episodic- taking witness back to crime scene can act as a cue to retrieve memories of crime
    - - bartlett- war of the ghosts
      - godden and baddley- scuba divers
      - hm- couldnt encode new memories- stm and ltm are diff stores
      - KF- dmg to stm after motorcycle accident, affected verbal processing but visual processing largely unaffected = separate stm components
- - - - aim: see if dogs could learn to associate a NS of a metronome with receiving food, producing saliva (CR)
      - procedure: dogs had tubes attached to salivary glands, drained saliva into measuring apparatus
        each placed in isolated, sound proof room + restrained in harness
        dog fed bowl of meat + metronome heard for a few seconds, or metronome started and no food given
        
        before: food = salivation. metronome gets no response
        during: food repeatedly paired with metronome = salivation
        after: metronome = salivation without food
      - results: dogs learned to salivate at sound of metronome even w/o food
        conditioned dog salivated 9s after hearing metronome, by 45s produced 11 drops of saliva
      - conclusion: aim possible via "signalisation"- sound of metronome is signal for food, dog reacts to signal as if it were food
    - - aim: see if can CC a fear response in a child towards an animal by presenting a loud noise to an infant child
      - sample: little albert- 9mo boy, reported as stolid and unemotional
      - procedure: IV = pairing of loud noise and rat DV = fear response via how much LA cried
        session 1: lab enviro, presented w white rat, when went to touch it, a bar was struck loudly behind his head x2
        session 2: week later, s1 five more times, building blocks after as a control- no response
        session 3: 5 days, tested w the pairing + other objects (rabbit, fur coat)
        session 4: 5 days, taken to new enviro (lecture theatre w 4 ppl present), tested to see responses again
        session 5: final test, month later, variety of objects (rat, rabbit, fur coat, santa mask)
      - results: baseline testing- only scared of loud noise
        session 1: responded to noise- fell forward and whimpered
        session 2: more cautious tw rat, wouldnt reach out like before
        session 3: fear gen to white furry objects
        session 4+5: same as 4 but less extreme in diff enviro + over time
      - conclusion: easy to establish aim- only took 2 sessions, stimulus gen occurs as LA feared white furry objects, extinguishing occurs- didnt cry at rabbit after 1yr 21 days
    - - extinction
        when association between UCS + CS no longer occurs after few trials of separating the 2 stimuli- learned response is extinguished
        
        e.g. teach dog to shake hands, dont do for a while = extinguished
      - spontaneous recovery
        reappearance of CR after extinguished
        
        e.g. sudden reappearance of CR after not happening for a while
      - stimulus generalisation
        stimuli similar to the CS can cause the CR to occur
        
        e.g. anxiety in one shop -> anxiety in all shops
    - - +: watson and rayner, pavlov
        -: bandura
  - - - schedules
        
        fixed ratio: reinforcer given after specific number of desired bhvr displayed
        
        variable ratio: reinforcer given after unpredictable number of desired bhvr
        
        fixed interval: time between reinforcer given is kept constant when desired bhvr shown
        
        variable interval: time between reinforcer is varied after desired bhvr shown
      - positive reinforcement: something desired GIVEN in response to bhvr eg pocket money
      - negative reinforcement: something undesired TAKEN AWAY in response to a bhvr to encourage repetition of desired bhvr eg scared of spiders -> avoid -> inc phobia
      - positive punishment: something undesired GIVEN as consequence of unwanted bhvr eg speeding ticket
      - negative punishment: something pleasant TAKEN AWAY as consequence of unwanted bhvr eg taking phone away
        ^ works best if applied when bhvr occurs + consistently
      - primary reinforcement: reward that meets a basic need eg food, shelter
      - secondary reinforcement: rewards that aren’t a basic need, but can be used to satisfy a basic need eg money -> buy food
    - - way to change problematic bhvr using OC or to increase outcome of desired bhvrs
        works by making person aware of consequences of their actions
      - token economy- targeted bhvrs reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcement eg fake money, stickers) later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcer eg money)
      - Eval
        
        +: lentz- only 11% of patients who received token economy treatment needed further treatment, compared to 100% of controls
        -: lentz- no change in so patients exhibiting delusions/hallucinations- only changed overt bhvr and not psych factors
    - - Desired bhvr broken down into simpler steps, reinforced to create a more complex bhvr
        Each reward given for getting a little closer to desired bhvr- reward becomes harder to obtain each time
        Occurs when desired bhvr is achieved by rewarding each successive approximation of the final bhvr
      - Eval
        
        +: reductionist- suggests bhvr can be changed simply by rewarding bhvr u want to be presented
        -: ignores ids- not all rewards work for everyone, subjective- means unique programmes necessary for each person
    - - +: skinner, sherman- students rewarded w praise for acting desirable continued that bhvr more
        -: pavlov, bandura
  - - - Attention- learner pays attention to important parts of RMs bhvr
        retention- observed bhvr is stored in learners memory
        reproduction- bhvr imitated by observer and will continue to be reproduced if reinforced
        motivation- determines if bhvr is imitated (pos and neg rewards) intrinsic = feelings of pride/guilt extrinsic = physical rewards/punishments
        ^ vicarious reinforcement- seeing someone else receive rewards/punishment for bhvr -> doesn’t need to be given directly to motivate learner to copy bhvr
    - - +: bandura- kids more likely to replicate agg of same sex adult RM- who’s being observed is important in whether bhvr imitated or not
        becker- slim RMs in media caused dieting in girls- neg influence
        -: Watson + rayner, kendler- identical twins have similar levels of agg- due to genetics not RM
    - - Aim: see if children imitate bhvr from role model + see if RMs gender affects imitation and agg
        ^ hypotheses of boys more agg than girls + those exposed to agg RM will be more agg
      - Procedure: 72 children, 36 m+f, aged 3-6 attending Stanford uni nursery
        matched based on pre existing agg- rated on 5 point scale by experimenter + nursery staff
        divided equally between three groups (agg, non, control) + half of each saw same sex and opposite sex role model
      - Stage 1- modelling:
        agg- watched m/f rm play w toys before bhving agg towards bobo doll
        non agg- ^ but ignored bobo doll
        control- played w toys, no rm
      - Stage 2- agg arousal:
        all children subjected to “mild agg arousal”- taken into another room w toys and told they were for other children- causing them to become frustrated
      - Stage 3- test for delayed imitation:
        all taken into a room w range of toys, including bobo doll
        observed thru one way mirror for 20 mins at 5 second intervals (240 opps)
      - Results: agg condition imitated more agg than non agg and controls
        male models physical agg (mean)- boys 25.8, girls 7.2
        female models verbal agg (mean)- girls 13.7, boys 4.5
      - Conclusion: bhvr can be learned by observing rm
        more likely to be imitated if it fits gender stereotypical bhvr eg females verbal agg
    - - Aim: see if observing agg in films (human/cartoon) would lead to diff levels of agg than using irl rms
      - Procedure: 96 children (48 m+f) from Stanford uni, matched on pre existing agg /5 + allocated to 1/4 conditions
        
        IRL human agg- same as og study
        
        Filmed human agg- child played in dark room whilst film of model bhving agg projected on wall
        
        Cartoon character agg- children played in room + tv played cartoon of female model dressed as a cat bhving agg
        
        Controls- same as og study
        exposed to agg arousal as before, observations recorded the same
      - Results: mean agg levels- real: 83 human: 92 cartoon: 99 control: 54
        cartoon and real had similar levels, no sig gender diff
      - Conclusion: children learn agg via observation and imitation, whether real/cartoon
    - - Aim: investigate impact of VR on children’s imitation of agg
      - Procedure: 66 children from Stanford uni (33 m+f), randomly allocated to 1/3 conditions, watched 5min programme of rm being agg using phys and agg bhvrs eg kicking bobo doll and saying fly away
        ^ observed this twice in programme
        end varied between conditions:
        
        model rewarded- given soft drink n sweets
        
        punished- scolded and hit w newspaper
        
        controls- no consequence
        then taken to room w bobo doll and agg observed every 5 seconds for 10 mins
        2 observers didnt know which condition child was in- double blind design
      - result: more agg in those who saw rm being rewarded, lowest in those punished
      - conclusion: seeing model reinforced for agg encourages imitation- observing consequences affects learning
    - - aim: assess impact of western attitudes and eating bhvrs on teenage girls
        investigate prolonged exposure to tv on fijian adolescent girls who prior to 1995 hadnt watched tv
      - procedure: 63 teenage girls in 1995 research (before tv), different set of 65 girls in 1998 (after tv)
        all native fijian, fluent in english and mean age of 17
        girls and parents signed informed consent form
        quant data- completed EAT-26 q, score of 20 or more was associated w dieting and purging- height and weight measured
        ss interview abt attitude to eating and body image, 1998 girls asked more questions abt tv
        carried out in homes individually
      - results:
        reported vomiting to control weight- 1995 0%, 1998 11.3%
        reported dieting at some time- 1998 69%
        qual data- "i just want to be slim bc the tv characters are slim"
      - conclusion: tv and identifying w rms in media led girls to be unsatisfied w their body image, causing neg changes to eating bhvr
  - - - women 3x more likely to develop ana than males
      - highest mortality rate of all mh disorders
      - eds- psych disorder of manipulation of food intake to control weight
      - anorexia- severe calorie reduction, bmi less than 17.5
  - - - operant conditioning
      - social learning theory
      - classical conditioning
    - - systematic desensitisation
        
        convo between therapist and client to identify object or situation that causes anxiety
        
        development of anxiety hierarchy- least to worst fear
        
        relaxation training- therapist teaching and practicing relaxation techniques with client
        
        gradual exposure
      - flooding therapy
        
        fully expose person w phobia to their fear- eventually calm down and show that they arent in danger
  - - - should
        
        validity + reliability- can be highly controlled and allows for replication, easier to remain detached, so easier to treat as objects = results more objective
        
        comparing generations- more animals breed and mature faster than humans- can study causes and effects quicker
      - should'nt
        
        physiological diffs- too diff to humans, results not gen
        
        animal responses to drugs- can change when tested on humans
        
        anthropomorphism- possibility of attributing animals w human characteristics eg facial expressions may not mean the same
    - - should
        
        types of research- some exps cant be carried out on humans bc too unethical, outcomes would lead to development in medication
        
        benefits of research- can lead to improved lives of humans and animals
      - should'nt
        
        speciesism- one species discrim against another species for own benefit
        
        pain and suffering- should be kept to a minimum whilst still achieving aims of research
        
        sentience- lvl of sentience animal has needs to be considered. any animal with cns considered to be sentient
    - - for animal research to be justified, animal suffering should be low, medical benefit high, quality of research high
    - - refine
        
        way in which the experiment is carried out should minimise pain and distress
      - replace
        
        can animals be replaced with something else
      - reduce
        
        number of animals should be kept to a minimum/maximum info must be gained
    - - researcher must have a home office licence and certificates that allow them to use animals in research
      - any use of anaesthetics must be used by an appropriately qualified specialist
      - social enviro of animal must be appropriate for the species
      - pain and suffering should be kept to a minimum + if prolonged animal should be euthenised
  - - - investigate gender diffs in prosocial and antisocial bhvr
    - - 3m2f 16-18yo, opportunity sampling
    - - recorded every time behaviour observed
        pro= eating, talking
        anti= headphones, messing around
        Tallied bhvr
    - - males more antisocial than females (15)
        females more prosocial (19)
- - - - aim: see if prejudice caused by comp for resources
      - procedure: 22 11yo boys from oklahoma, matched on iq, sporting ability and bhvr, covert but parents gave consent
        used a ppt observation, gathered quant and qual data + used tape recordings
        
        in group formation- groups unaware of each other, initial friendships formed . 1 week
        
        inter group relations- made aware of each other, competed in games like baseball
        
        inter group relations- so goal introd to reduce prej eg fixing water tank
      - results: out group friendships- stage 2: 6.4%, stage 3: 36.4%
      - conclusion: comp = in group solidarity and inter group hostility. groups need to agree how to solve a common goal to reduce friction
    - - presence of in group/out group causes prej
      - categorisation- decide which group we belong to- "us" and "them" = in/outgroups
        
        social identification- adopting identity of group identify w + conforming to norms. helps create self concept
        
        social comparison- enhance ingroup status by exaggerating pos qualities- underestimating qualities of outgroup -> maximising diffs between. ingroup favouritism- giving resources to own group over outgroup
        
        +: levine- football fans more likely to help injured person wearing shirt of team they support than rival team
        -: sherif
    - - cultural
        
        individualistic cultures eg usa- emphasise individualism and promotes respect of others- conflict not desirable in society so less prejudice
        
        collectivist cultures eg china- emphasise social harmony of in group over individuals interests- less likely to be prejudice towards in group but more likely to outgroup that threatens social harmony
        
        +: chow- chinese employees less willing to share info w members of outgroup compared to americans
        guimond- countries that promoted multiculturalism have lower levels of prejudice- canada lowest, germany highest
        -: adorno- authoritarian personality, sherif
      - situational
        
        features of physical/social enviro that make individual develop prejudice
        
        social norms- socially acceptable
        
        +: mindard- rels between black and white coal miners pos underground but racist overground- social situation dictate prej
        -: adorno
        
        presence of others- eg role models, imitating to belong
      - IDs- personality
        
        personality- set of traits that remain stable over time that a person uses to judge world around them
        
        authoritarian- raised w harsh parenting style, more discrim of others, more likely to form in/outgroups due to hostile beliefs
        
        +: cohrs- rwa pos correlated w prej + neg w openness
        -: chow- chinese employees less willing to share info w outgroup compared to americans- due to ingroup/outgroup not IDs
        
        right wing authoritarianism- prej towards certain groups eg women, ems- learnt response due to uncertainty abt world
    - - comp for scarce resources
        scapegoating- blaming one group for all faults in society
        so goals can reduce prejudice (common goal)
  - - - autonomous state- responsible for own actions, free thinking
        agentic shift- moving between thinking autonomously and obeying an af
        agentic state- feeling controlled by af so giving up individual responsibility for actions
        moral strain- feeling of intense discomfort and stress caused by internal conflict between need to obey even tho believe theyre wrong
        dissent- not obeying af
        
        +: hofling- 95% nurses gave a dose of a drug that exceeded the max allowed when ordered by doctor over phone (against hospital rules)
        -: adorno- auth personality more likely to obey af- ignores ids
    - - aim- test "germans are diff" hypothesis to see if ppl would obey orders from an af and deliver electric shocks to another person
      - procedure: self selected sample, 40 males 20-50yo from wide variety of backgrounds, responded to newspaper advert to take part in study abt effects of punishment on learning, paid $4.50
        yale uni, introduced to mr wallace (confed), fixed draw to decide teacher and learner- ppt teacher
        sample shock of 45V, experimenter said shocks wouldnt cause permanent dmg
        taken to next room, spoke to MW on intercom
        he gave predetermined responses to word pairs test and each ppt instructed to administer shock in 15V increments for each wrong answer
        300V- stopped pounding on wall
        315V- once more then silent
        hesitation = "please continue"
        if still refused, exp ended
        all debriefed at end and met mr wallace. interviewed months after to ensure no lt dmg
      - results: 100% up to 300V, 65% carried on to 450V
        ppts observed to sweat, tremble and bite lips
        nervous laughing in 14, seizures in 3 = moral strain
      - conclusion: obedience product of situation, not personal characteristics
        agentic shift occurs even despite moral strain
    - - 7: telephone
        
        aim: see if phys proximity of af affects obedience
        
        procedure: exp gave orders to 40 males over phone
        initial instructions face to face, then left room and gave instructions elsewhere
        
        results: obedience lvls 22.5%
        continued to administer lower shocks and lied to exp abt it
        
        conclusion: proximity affects obedience lvls
      - 10- run down office
        
        aim: see if changing setting from yale to run down office block would change obedience lvls as less prestigious setting
        
        procedure: sparsely furnished office in bridgeport owned by "private research company"
        40 males selected thru mailshot recruitment- less official and paid for their time
        
        results: obedience lvls 47.5%
        ppts questioned companys credentials, called study "heartless"
        
        conclusion: enviro matters- less legitimacy to af = less obedience
      - 13- ordinary man
        
        aim: see if obedience would change if ordinary man gave orders
        
        procedure: 2 confeds 1 ppt, ppt teacher, confeds learner + experimenter assistant
        experimenter told ppt to deliver shocks to learner but didnt specify voltage, then left room bc "call" and told ppt to carry on w word pairs
        "learner" in ordinary clothes said shock level should be inc by 15V w every mistake
        
        results: obedience lvls 20%
        
        conclusion: lower obedience bc ordinary mans authority seen as less legit compared to those in uniform
    - - aim: see if milgrams findings would be replicated today, if ppl use other ppls bhvr as a guideline how to bhv + gender/personality diffs in obedience
      - procedure: advertised study, 29m 41f, paid $50 each for 2 45min sessions, ppts couldnt have taken more than 2 psych classes, history of psych disorder, been in combat or experienced abuse
        randomly assigned to one of two conditions
        base condition: ppts told abt learning and memory, fixed draw like milgram + test shock of 15V, shocks went up to 150V, prompts used to encourage
        75V = learner grunt in pain
        150V = learner "get me out of here"
        model refusal: same procedure but w 2 confeds
        confed = teacher 1 ppt = teacher 2
        teacher 1 began procedure, hesitated at 75V but continued to 90V then stopped despite prompts
        experimenter then asked teacher 2 to continue w test
        ended when ppt refused to continue or pressed 150V
      - results:
        base- 70%, 65% in milgram
        model- 63.3%, 82.5% in milgrams exp 5
        little gender diff or personality effects
      - conclusion: obedience similar levels today
        someone else refusing instructions had no impact on obedience
    - - sources- ppl influencing others
        targets- ppl influenced by source
        number- more sources saying same thing, more likely to influence targets
        ^ if number higher than 3, influence decreases w each one
        strength- more influence if af w status
        immediacy- higher if known figure/in close proximity
        multiplication effect- inc number, strenght and immediacy of source = more obedient
        divisional effect- obedience lvls reduce if more targets than sources
        
        +: milgram v7- only 22.5% of ppts went up to 450V as instructions given over phone- proximity of af important factor in obedience
        -: hofling
    - - situational
        
        presence of others- eg role models, can cause obedience to be higher/lower depending on social norm
        
        +: milgram v10
        -: adorno
      - personality
        
        authoritarian- raised w harsh parenting style, more obedient as a result of socialisation into values + tolerance
        
        +: adorno
        -: milgram v10
        
        locus of control- ppl w internal LOC see themselves as responsible for own bhvr- more likely to dissent
        external more likely to obey- just following orders
      - gender
        
        gender socialisation- child learns norms society has associated w their gender eg females caring = females more obedient
        ^ however no real diff in obedience based on gender
        
        +: sheridan and king- maximum shocks to puppy- 54% m 100% f
        -: burger- v little gender diff in obedience in base condition
      - culture
        
        individualistic- individualism, promote respect = less likely to conform
        collectivist- emphasise social harmony = more likely to obey to maintain social order
        power distance index- whether society accepts and follows hierarchy + power in society. high pdi cultures more obedient as understand position in society + lower status ppl expect to be told what to do
        
        +: dolinski- poland (high pdi) had obedience lvl of 90%
        -: blass- milgrams study, 35% who disobeyed had internal locus of control as didnt want to be responsible for hurting learner = personality
  - - - more than 108 million ppl killed in wars in 20th century
        50% of war casualties are civilians caught in crossfire
        rape is most neglected war crime of the 1949 geneva convention
        institute for economics and peace- conflict and violence cost us $14.3 trillion in 2016
    - - rct- prejudice casues war due to comp for resources
      - sit- war occurs as we categorise into in/outgroups that we then identify with
      - social impact theory- sources could be political/army leaders telling targets to go to war
      - agency theory- cause of war is ppl in agentic state
    - - rct- sherif
      - cohrs- rwa pos correlated w prejudice = personality important in causing conflict between groups = war due to conflict of personalities
      - minard- rels between black and white miners friendly underground and racist above ground- social situation dictates prejudice, then causing war
      - milgram- ppts demonstrate moral strain as trembled when following orders to deliver shocks- will suffer phys reactions but still continue = soldiers still obey af even if they think they are wrong