stimulus associated w response
stimulus = something in our enviro that affects us
applies to conditioning of reflexes- involuntary bhvrs

e.g. teach dog to shake hands, dont do for a while = extinguished

e.g. sudden reappearance of CR after not happening for a while

aim: see if dogs could learn to associate a NS of a metronome with receiving food, producing saliva (CR)

before: food = salivation. metronome gets no response
during: food repeatedly paired with metronome = salivation
after: metronome = salivation without food

results: dogs learned to salivate at sound of metronome even w/o food
conditioned dog salivated 9s after hearing metronome, by 45s produced 11 drops of saliva

conclusion: aim possible via "signalisation"- sound of metronome is signal for food, dog reacts to signal as if it were food

aim: see if can CC a fear response in a child towards an animal by presenting a loud noise to an infant child

sample: little albert- 9mo boy, reported as stolid and unemotional

procedure: IV = pairing of loud noise and rat DV = fear response via how much LA cried
session 1: lab enviro, presented w white rat, when went to touch it, a bar was struck loudly behind his head x2
session 2: week later, s1 five more times, building blocks after as a control- no response
session 3: 5 days, tested w the pairing + other objects (rabbit, fur coat)
session 4: 5 days, taken to new enviro (lecture theatre w 4 ppl present), tested to see responses again
session 5: final test, month later, variety of objects (rat, rabbit, fur coat, santa mask)

results: baseline testing- only scared of loud noise
session 1: responded to noise- fell forward and whimpered
session 2: more cautious tw rat, wouldnt reach out like before
session 3: fear gen to white furry objects
session 4+5: same as 4 but less extreme in diff enviro + over time

conclusion: easy to establish aim- only took 2 sessions, stimulus gen occurs as LA feared white furry objects, extinguishing occurs- didnt cry at rabbit after 1yr 21 days

positive reinforcement: something desired GIVEN in response to bhvr eg pocket money

negative reinforcement: something undesired TAKEN AWAY in response to a bhvr to encourage repetition of desired bhvr eg scared of spiders -> avoid -> inc phobia

positive punishment: something undesired GIVEN as consequence of unwanted bhvr eg speeding ticket

negative punishment: something pleasant TAKEN AWAY as consequence of unwanted bhvr eg taking phone away
^ works best if applied when bhvr occurs + consistently

primary reinforcement: reward that meets a basic need eg food, shelter

secondary reinforcement: rewards that aren’t a basic need, but can be used to satisfy a basic need eg money -> buy food

fixed ratio: reinforcer given after specific number of desired bhvr displayed

variable ratio: reinforcer given after unpredictable number of desired bhvr

fixed interval: time between reinforcer given is kept constant when desired bhvr shown

variable interval: time between reinforcer is varied after desired bhvr shown

+: skinner, sherman- students rewarded w praise for acting desirable continued that bhvr more
-: pavlov, bandura

way to change problematic bhvr using OC or to increase outcome of desired bhvrs
works by making person aware of consequences of their actions

token economy- targeted bhvrs reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcement eg fake money, stickers) later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcer eg money)

Desired bhvr broken down into simpler steps, reinforced to create a more complex bhvr
Each reward given for getting a little closer to desired bhvr- reward becomes harder to obtain each time
Occurs when desired bhvr is achieved by rewarding each successive approximation of the final bhvr

+: reductionist- suggests bhvr can be changed simply by rewarding bhvr u want to be presented
-: ignores ids- not all rewards work for everyone, subjective- means unique programmes necessary for each person

+: lentz- only 11% of patients who received token economy treatment needed further treatment, compared to 100% of controls
-: lentz- no change in so patients exhibiting delusions/hallucinations- only changed overt bhvr and not psych factors

Attention- learner pays attention to important parts of RMs bhvr
retention- observed bhvr is stored in learners memory
reproduction- bhvr imitated by observer and will continue to be reproduced if reinforced
motivation- determines if bhvr is imitated (pos and neg rewards) intrinsic = feelings of pride/guilt extrinsic = physical rewards/punishments
^ vicarious reinforcement- seeing someone else receive rewards/punishment for bhvr -> doesn’t need to be given directly to motivate learner to copy bhvr

+: bandura- kids more likely to replicate agg of same sex adult RM- who’s being observed is important in whether bhvr imitated or not
becker- slim RMs in media caused dieting in girls- neg influence
-: Watson + rayner, kendler- identical twins have similar levels of agg- due to genetics not RM

Aim: see if children imitate bhvr from role model + see if RMs gender affects imitation and agg
^ hypotheses of boys more agg than girls + those exposed to agg RM will be more agg

Procedure: 72 children, 36 m+f, aged 3-6 attending Stanford uni nursery
matched based on pre existing agg- rated on 5 point scale by experimenter + nursery staff
divided equally between three groups (agg, non, control) + half of each saw same sex and opposite sex role model

Stage 1- modelling:
agg- watched m/f rm play w toys before bhving agg towards bobo doll
non agg- ^ but ignored bobo doll
control- played w toys, no rm

Stage 2- agg arousal:
all children subjected to “mild agg arousal”- taken into another room w toys and told they were for other children- causing them to become frustrated

Stage 3- test for delayed imitation:
all taken into a room w range of toys, including bobo doll
observed thru one way mirror for 20 mins at 5 second intervals (240 opps)

Results: agg condition imitated more agg than non agg and controls
male models physical agg (mean)- boys 25.8, girls 7.2
female models verbal agg (mean)- girls 13.7, boys 4.5

Conclusion: bhvr can be learned by observing rm
more likely to be imitated if it fits gender stereotypical bhvr eg females verbal agg

Aim: see if observing agg in films (human/cartoon) would lead to diff levels of agg than using irl rms

Procedure: 96 children (48 m+f) from Stanford uni, matched on pre existing agg /5 + allocated to 1/4 conditions

1. IRL human agg- same as og study
2. Filmed human agg- child played in dark room whilst film of model bhving agg projected on wall
3. Cartoon character agg- children played in room + tv played cartoon of female model dressed as a cat bhving agg
4. Controls- same as og study
   exposed to agg arousal as before, observations recorded the same

Results: mean agg levels- real: 83 human: 92 cartoon: 99 control: 54
cartoon and real had similar levels, no sig gender diff

Conclusion: children learn agg via observation and imitation, whether real/cartoon

Aim: investigate impact of VR on children’s imitation of agg

Procedure: 66 children from Stanford uni (33 m+f), randomly allocated to 1/3 conditions, watched 5min programme of rm being agg using phys and agg bhvrs eg kicking bobo doll and saying fly away
^ observed this twice in programme
end varied between conditions:

1. model rewarded- given soft drink n sweets
2. punished- scolded and hit w newspaper
3. controls- no consequence
   then taken to room w bobo doll and agg observed every 5 seconds for 10 mins
   2 observers didnt know which condition child was in- double blind design

result: more agg in those who saw rm being rewarded, lowest in those punished

conclusion: seeing model reinforced for agg encourages imitation- observing consequences affects learning

aim: assess impact of western attitudes and eating bhvrs on teenage girls
investigate prolonged exposure to tv on fijian adolescent girls who prior to 1995 hadnt watched tv

procedure: 63 teenage girls in 1995 research (before tv), different set of 65 girls in 1998 (after tv)
all native fijian, fluent in english and mean age of 17
girls and parents signed informed consent form
quant data- completed EAT-26 q, score of 20 or more was associated w dieting and purging- height and weight measured
ss interview abt attitude to eating and body image, 1998 girls asked more questions abt tv
carried out in homes individually

results:
reported vomiting to control weight- 1995 0%, 1998 11.3%
reported dieting at some time- 1998 69%
qual data- "i just want to be slim bc the tv characters are slim"

conclusion: tv and identifying w rms in media led girls to be unsatisfied w their body image, causing neg changes to eating bhvr

women 3x more likely to develop ana than males

eds- psych disorder of manipulation of food intake to control weight

anorexia- severe calorie reduction, bmi less than 17.5

comp for scarce resources
scapegoating- blaming one group for all faults in society
so goals can reduce prejudice (common goal)

aim: see if prejudice caused by comp for resources

procedure: 22 11yo boys from oklahoma, matched on iq, sporting ability and bhvr, covert but parents gave consent
used a ppt observation, gathered quant and qual data + used tape recordings

1. in group formation- groups unaware of each other, initial friendships formed . 1 week
2. inter group relations- made aware of each other, competed in games like baseball
3. inter group relations- so goal introd to reduce prej eg fixing water tank

results: out group friendships- stage 2: 6.4%, stage 3: 36.4%

conclusion: comp = in group solidarity and inter group hostility. groups need to agree how to solve a common goal to reduce friction

+: chow- chinese employees less willing to share info w members of outgroup compared to americans
guimond- countries that promoted multiculturalism have lower levels of prejudice- canada lowest, germany highest
-: adorno- authoritarian personality, sherif

+: levine- football fans more likely to help injured person wearing shirt of team they support than rival team
-: sherif

+: mindard- rels between black and white coal miners pos underground but racist overground- social situation dictate prej
-: adorno

+: cohrs- rwa pos correlated w prej + neg w openness
-: chow- chinese employees less willing to share info w outgroup compared to americans- due to ingroup/outgroup not IDs

+: hofling- 95% nurses gave a dose of a drug that exceeded the max allowed when ordered by doctor over phone (against hospital rules)
-: adorno- auth personality more likely to obey af- ignores ids

aim- test "germans are diff" hypothesis to see if ppl would obey orders from an af and deliver electric shocks to another person

procedure: self selected sample, 40 males 20-50yo from wide variety of backgrounds, responded to newspaper advert to take part in study abt effects of punishment on learning, paid $4.50
yale uni, introduced to mr wallace (confed), fixed draw to decide teacher and learner- ppt teacher
sample shock of 45V, experimenter said shocks wouldnt cause permanent dmg
taken to next room, spoke to MW on intercom
he gave predetermined responses to word pairs test and each ppt instructed to administer shock in 15V increments for each wrong answer
300V- stopped pounding on wall
315V- once more then silent
hesitation = "please continue"
if still refused, exp ended
all debriefed at end and met mr wallace. interviewed months after to ensure no lt dmg

results: 100% up to 300V, 65% carried on to 450V
ppts observed to sweat, tremble and bite lips
nervous laughing in 14, seizures in 3 = moral strain

conclusion: obedience product of situation, not personal characteristics
agentic shift occurs even despite moral strain

aim: see if phys proximity of af affects obedience

procedure: exp gave orders to 40 males over phone
initial instructions face to face, then left room and gave instructions elsewhere

results: obedience lvls 22.5%
continued to administer lower shocks and lied to exp abt it

aim: see if changing setting from yale to run down office block would change obedience lvls as less prestigious setting

procedure: sparsely furnished office in bridgeport owned by "private research company"
40 males selected thru mailshot recruitment- less official and paid for their time

results: obedience lvls 47.5%
ppts questioned companys credentials, called study "heartless"

conclusion: enviro matters- less legitimacy to af = less obedience

aim: see if obedience would change if ordinary man gave orders

procedure: 2 confeds 1 ppt, ppt teacher, confeds learner + experimenter assistant
experimenter told ppt to deliver shocks to learner but didnt specify voltage, then left room bc "call" and told ppt to carry on w word pairs
"learner" in ordinary clothes said shock level should be inc by 15V w every mistake

conclusion: lower obedience bc ordinary mans authority seen as less legit compared to those in uniform

aim: see if milgrams findings would be replicated today, if ppl use other ppls bhvr as a guideline how to bhv + gender/personality diffs in obedience

procedure: advertised study, 29m 41f, paid $50 each for 2 45min sessions, ppts couldnt have taken more than 2 psych classes, history of psych disorder, been in combat or experienced abuse
randomly assigned to one of two conditions

base condition: ppts told abt learning and memory, fixed draw like milgram + test shock of 15V, shocks went up to 150V, prompts used to encourage
75V = learner grunt in pain
150V = learner "get me out of here"

model refusal: same procedure but w 2 confeds
confed = teacher 1 ppt = teacher 2
teacher 1 began procedure, hesitated at 75V but continued to 90V then stopped despite prompts
experimenter then asked teacher 2 to continue w test
ended when ppt refused to continue or pressed 150V

conclusion: obedience similar levels today
someone else refusing instructions had no impact on obedience

+: milgram v7- only 22.5% of ppts went up to 450V as instructions given over phone- proximity of af important factor in obedience
-: hofling

+: sheridan and king- maximum shocks to puppy- 54% m 100% f
-: burger- v little gender diff in obedience in base condition

+: dolinski- poland (high pdi) had obedience lvl of 90%
-: blass- milgrams study, 35% who disobeyed had internal locus of control as didnt want to be responsible for hurting learner = personality

more than 108 million ppl killed in wars in 20th century
50% of war casualties are civilians caught in crossfire
rape is most neglected war crime of the 1949 geneva convention
institute for economics and peace- conflict and violence cost us $14.3 trillion in 2016

rct- prejudice casues war due to comp for resources

sit- war occurs as we categorise into in/outgroups that we then identify with

social impact theory- sources could be political/army leaders telling targets to go to war

agency theory- cause of war is ppl in agentic state

cohrs- rwa pos correlated w prejudice = personality important in causing conflict between groups = war due to conflict of personalities

minard- rels between black and white miners friendly underground and racist above ground- social situation dictates prejudice, then causing war

milgram- ppts demonstrate moral strain as trembled when following orders to deliver shocks- will suffer phys reactions but still continue = soldiers still obey af even if they think they are wrong

aim: see if theres gender diffs in obedience and answer q "are women more obedient than men"

procedure: 20ppts, 10m+f 16-18yo from north west college, opportunity sampling as selected if present and available
ppts told to answer 5qs in 5 mins individually in silence, informed consent gained
2 open qs, 3 closed qs eg "do you obey afs yes/no" "explain why you think ppl obey afs"
debriefed- all data confidential

results: do you obey afs? males = 14 females = 15

conclusion: slight difference in obedience based on gender

sample: 62 sz patients (24 mz twins 33 dz- identified using blood grouping), hospitalised before 1964, aged 19-64, from london hospital

procedure: mental health measured using hospital notes, semi structured interviews and tape recordings

results: 42% mz had sz 9% of dz- 42% more likely to have sz if u have an identical twin (1% of entire population have sz)

conclusion: closer genetic link means more likely to have sz, but needs an enviro trigger

aim: investigate if genetic basis to sz by comparing adoptive + bio family of sz patients

sample: 34 sz patients (mostly dz twins) from danish adoption register aged 20-43
33 controls matched on gender, age adopted + social class of adoptive family

procedure: tracked down 463 relatives using family records and used MH register to assess mental status
relatives diagnosed by psychiatrists who didnt know relationship to patient
diagnosed into 3 categories:
B- just like adoptive child
C- inadequate personality (poor social skills, struggle to adapt)
D- uncertain lvl of sz (diag unclear)

results: more sz signs between child + bio family than adoptive
more sz in bio family than controls
8.7% of bio relatives has inadequate personality, 1.9% in controls

conclusion: sz has genetic basis- more sz in bio families than adoptive

brain + spinal column
made up of cns and peripheral ns (pns)
info from pns travels up to brain, then organises response + sends signal to body on how to react

frontal lobe- higher cog functions eg problem solving, decision making

parietal lobe- processes info from senses, important in language processing

occipital lobe- visual processing of into- visuo-spatial, colour diff, motion perception

spinal cord- transmission of nerve signals from body to brain

cerebellum- motor control, cood of movements + motor learning

corpus callosum- connects two hemispheres + enables communication between the two "info highway"

thalamus- brain relay station, passes info from senses

hypothalamus- controls hormones, regulates body function

basal ganglia- processes info on movement, habit learning and rewards

+: raine- murderers has asymmetrical functioning of amygdala- pet scans can show diffs in brain

+: tateno et al- posttraumatic agg more frequent in those w brain injury

+: montag et al- gamers had lower levels of activity in relation to pictures of neg emotion than controls- more agg as brains struggle to process vio images

aim: show that murderers pleading ngri would show dysfunction in areas of the brain associated with violence

sample: experimental: 41 murderers (39m, 2f), mean age 31.3 NGRI due to sz, substance abuse control: 41 ppl (39m, 2f), matched w exp. on age, gender + sz diag. mean age 31.7

procedure: ppts screened for general health, medical history + undertook psychiatric interviews all medication free for 2 weeks prior to brain scan worked on continuous performance task - focus on presentation of blurred numbers
10 min trial of cpt to ensure knew what doing then injected w radioactive tracer + had to complete cpt for 32 mins to allow tracer to be metabolised in active brain areas
pet scan took place after this

results: lower glucose metabolism in prefrontal cortex (self control, remorse) than controls asymmetrical glucose metabolism in amygdala- lower in left, higher in right than control group
no difference between how well groups did in task

conclusion: deficits in functioning of prefrontal cortex + areas of limbic system could explain violent criminals as unable to learn from consequences of actions
asymmetrical functioning of amygdala may affect understanding of social situations - lead to agg.

dendrites- end of the neuron, makes synaptic connection w another neuron/cell, contains NTs

axon- extension of cell body, electrical impulse passes down towards axon terminals

cell body- contains nucleus- holds genetic material, contains mitochondria- gives cell energy

myelin sheath- fatty deposits that provide insulating layer, speed up transmission

nodes of ranvier- break along myelin sheath- speeds up transmission

axon terminals- receive msgs from other neurons to trigger action potential (electrical impulse)

1. electrical impulse triggered due to change in charge in neuron- action potential
2. electrical signal reaches terminal button -> changes to chemical msg
3. chemical msg is a nt which is released fro vesicles
4. nt travels across synapse to next neuron
5. nt binds with receptors on next neuron to pass msg on
6. either reabsorbed (reuptake) or destroyed by enzymes in synapse, returning neuron to a resting state

chemical messengers that act between neurons in brain- allows brain to process thoughts and memories
released into synaptic gap + taken up by receptors of dendrites of another neuron to send/inhibit msg
these nts then remain in synaptic cleft- either reabsorbed/destroyed

gaba- inhibitory nt that contributes to motor control- reduces activity of any neuron it binds to

+: carlsson- sz caused by high levels of dopa in basal ganglia- plays role in regulation of cognition

higley- rhesus monkeys in wild, those injured in fights more likely to have low serotonin levels (serotonin inhibits agg)

alter brain functioning
brain contains "reward pathway", when activated causes us to experience pleasant feelings- encourages repetition of bhvr
change the way nts work in brain

+:li et al- heroin users has higher pcc activity- brains reward pathways do change when taking drugs
-: jones et al- ppl given placebo experienced a high like cannabis users- addiction is due to cognitive thinking process

aim: see if PCC is activated when given drug related cues
see if PCC activation is stronger in heroin addicts compared to controls- possible brain damage

sample:
experimental- 14 male heroin users from china, in drug rehab centre in detox stage of treatment, mean age 35, heroin free
control- 15 males, matched on handedness, edu. level and age.
all ppts smokers, no head trauma/psychiatric disorder + gave written informed consent

procedure:
scan 1: structural scan to identify different brain areas
scan 2: 5 min resting fMRI, ppts focus on crosshair scan 3: fMRI, lasted 490s, ppts shown 48 pics- half neutral half heroin related to measure cue-reactivity.
each pic presented for 2s, average interval of 8s between pics before + after cue presentation
ppts asked to complete self-report to assess cravings on 0-10 scale

results: heroin users scored higher on cravings scale (3.21) compared to controls (2.23) after presentation
pcc more active in heroin users than controls when shown drug related images

conclusion: pcc activity in heroin users is different than in non users
environmental cues can trigger habitual reactions in brain in heroin users- explains why heroin users can relapse when exposed to cues

+: mazur- males fight less as grow as often found partner by late 20s
buss- males prefer younger females as at reproductive peak, but females prefer older, wealthier males as children have more support to survive
-: dabbs- those with high t levels committed violent crimes

hormones- chemical msgers that send info around body
carried in blood, produced + excreted by glands in endocrine system
fight or flight

+: dabbs- saliva samples, male prisoners w higher t levels committed violent crimes
-: eisenegger et al- gave females t dose, behaved more generous and sociably

+: dewall et al- high oxytocin in males already agg were more likely to be agg towards partners
-: lane et al- more oxytocin = inc in trustworthiness

+: burnett et al- boys w lower cortisol in saliva 3x more agg
-: shaol et al- inc agg in adolescents w low cortisol may be more associated w lack of self control

agg- feelings of anger that can result in violent actions- issue if bio as can be used as excuse for crime

agg is one of most common consequences of tbi, approx 11-34%

williams- 60% of YA males in prison have some sort of tbi

men 2x more likely to have tbi than women- explains more men in prison

testosterone- agg when overproduced= agg to show dominance- hormones

dmg to right amygdala- deficit in decision making, impulsive

dmg to prefrontal cortex- problems w decision making + impulse control- outburst = nurture

males evolved to be more agg to survive and pass genes down- nature

testosterone- eisenegger- females given t behaved more generously= not t

amygdala- cs of charles whitman- shot 16 ppl at texas uni, found tumour on amygdala = brain structure

prefrontal- raine- ngris had lower glucose metab in prefrontal cortex

evolution- slt argues observation and imitation of role models causes agg- ignores nurture = low val

personality has 3 parts- id, ego, superego
^ in continuous conflict w each other, but usually unconsciously

driven by instincts- eros + thanatos
eros- life instinct, driving force that makes us behave to sustain life + continuation of species- includes bio needs to satisfy sexual instincts, hunger, pain avoidance
thanatos- destructive force, ppl hold unconscious desire to die- self destructive bhvr is expression of energy created by death instincts
id is present from birth + origin of all bhvr
demands immediate gratification of impulses + bio needs + drives, irrespective of whats appropriate in a given situation/consequences of actions

develops from age 2, maintains balance between bio needs (id) + need to follow societal rules (superego)
logical + rational
reality principle- find ways to satisfy instincts in socially appropriate ways
doesnt have morals but controls demands of id thru fantasies of the act eg agg

age 3-6, when we start to develop sense of morality + sense of right and wrong
represents ideal image we have of ourselves
morality principl- represents our conscience
when agg, opposes id with feelings of shame/guilt as not meeting highest moral standards
demands of superego can be as intense as id

employed by ego to manage agg impulses of id and morality of superego
displacement- agg u may feel towards someone eg boss can be redirected towards another person eg parent

sublimation- satisfy agg urge in acceptable way eg sport

projection- attribute own unacceptable throughts onto another eg wrong to hate someone, convince that they hate u so its justified

+: verona et al- heart rate of those who reacted agg when frustrated was reduced compared to those who didnt- agg is cathartic
-: bandura- agg learned thru observation + imitation- learned not need to release energy

Process in which info abt world around us is encoded, stored and retrieved

Encoding- allows info from outside world to be coded in 5 senses

Storage- how info is held in memory until we need it

Retrieval- finding info + bringing it back out of storage

Memory not like tape recorder- what we retrieve from ltm isnt exact copy of what we experienced
diff info we store interacts with one another during processing, causing memories to change over time

Schema- mental rep of info (template) abt specific event/object which we use to understand whats happening in world around us
use schemata to help us understand new situations, can cause change in stored memories as what we expect to happen affects memory we store abt whats happening

+: loftus and pickrall- 25% of pets remembered false memory of being lost in shopping mall
shaw and porter- 70% of ppts in crim condition explained false memory of committing a crime
-: wynn and logie- uni students recall of first week didnt change over time
Axelrod- doesn’t account for changes in groups

Sensory register
encoding- through senses
^ modality specific- format it enters store stays same
capacity- approx 10
duration- approx 2s
attention- info attended to, passes to stm, if not attended to, permanently lost

Ltm
encoding- semantically (through meaning), auditory, visually
capacity- unlimited
duration- potentially forever

+: hm- unable to make new memories after removal of hippocampus, though still had memories up to 16yo before surgery, suggesting still had ltm just couldn’t add to it = separate stores
-: Bartlett- RM- single store that can later retrieve info from- too complex

Added to msm as too simplistic- believe stm contains 3 diff stores
“working memory”- parts of memory that deal with tasks eg arithmetic, learning phone numbers where u need to hold info in memory to complete task

Central executive
controls other components of wm
allocates info to PL and VSSP
^ deals w shifting and dividing attention + involved in higher cognitive function eg problem solving
limited capacity but can deal w diff types of sensory info- modality free

Visuospatial sketchpad
holds visual info eg images, colours, shapes
anything that uses spatial awareness (eg navigation)
capacity: 3-4 objects
split into 2 parts:
visual cache- stores info about form and colour
inner scribe- deals w retrieval and rehearsal

Dual-processing
phonological store has limited capacity, cant cope w demands of 2 tasks at once = poor processing
can dual process visual + audio info at same time as separate stores
^ therefore visual + sound info must be processed by diff systems + separated

+: KF- dmg to stm after motorcycle accident, affected verbal processing but visual processing largely unaffected = separate stm components
episodic buffer added later- developed
-: Lieberman- blind ppl have spacial memory, even tho never had visual info

Aim: investigate influence of acoustic + semantic word similarity on learning + recall in stm + ltm

Sample: 72 m+f from applied psychology research panel in cambridge
independent measures- took part in 1 condition

Procedure: ppts assigned 1/4 word list groups
A: 10 acoustically similar (man, cab) - test stm
B: acoustically dissimilar (pit, few) - test stm
C: 10 semantically similar (great, large) - test ltm
D: 10 semantically dissimilar words (good, huge) - test ltm

4 trials per list- 1 word every 3s with 2s changeover
ppts completed distraction task- 6 eight-digit recalls presented at 1 digit per second
ppt then had to recall the words from the list in the order they learned them in (serial recall)
followed by 15 min self-paced digit copying task before final surprise of words in correct order

Results: acoustic similarity- initial learning of acoustically similar words impaired, but once learned there was no sig diff in recall between trial 4 and retest
semantic similarity- semantically similar words showed slower learning over 4 trials, had sig lower level of correct recall in surprise retest than dissimilar

Conclusion: Ltm impaired by semantic similarity
ltm uses semantic coding but not exclusively
although initial info may be encoded acoustically, for it to be retained there needs to be semantic meaning linked to it

Aim: investigate development of PL in children between 5-17, using digit span as a measure of capacity
compare to prev research- digit span may be affected by word length

Sample: 570 ppts from public/priv schools in madrid
all native Spanish + impairments controlled

Divided into 5 age groups + average digit span recorded for each age and age group
read aloud digits that they had to recall in the correct order
had to get 2 out of three right to move to the next sequence (went up by 1 digit each time)
digit span recorded- maximum length ppts could recall 2/3 of sequences in correct order wo error
also done with 25 older people and 25 dementia patients- secondary data

results: Mean:
5 years - 3.76
15-17 - 5.83
Alzheimer's- 4.20
Healthy - 4.44

conclusion: Digit span increases with age
digit span shorter in Spanish population due to the word length associated with digits
digit span is a result of ageing rather than dementia

aim: investigate impact of surgical procedure on hm that resulted in no new memories being stored

method: completed diff memory tests over 55 years
due to being epileptic + having seizures, had operation removing his hippocampi
couldnt form any new conscious memories after this + suffered a retrogade amnesia (loss of memories formed prior to brain dmg)

results: could recall everything prior to surgery, but couldnt encode new memories
only remembered info up to 30s- info couldnt pass from stm to ltm
could learn new motor skills eg faster at drawing, however this was subconsciously

conclusion: supports msm as shows diff stores in memory
stm is around 15-30s long as amount of time hm could hold info before it got displaced by new info
ltm is separate store as can access info from before surgery abt his life

Encoded through smells, visual and emotional state

+: Godden and baddeley- scuba divers had greater recall of words in the environment they learnt in (underwater) suggests recall is better when the episode is repeated in the same context-shows cues are needed for retrieval
-: HM was still able to play piano, as well as learn new skills after surgery, showing episodic and semantic is too simplistic as procedural memory is another LTM component

ewt- info given to police abt what a witness to a crime remembers- if recall inaccurate then wrong person could be convicted

41% of miscarriage of justice in uk is due to unreliable ewt

maximum compensation given to those in prison 10+ years is £1 million

2011- 1/3 of wrongfully convicted ppl ended up homeless due to lack of support after release- more likely to reoffend

wmm- vssp and pl can process diff info at same time- reliable

msm- sensory register 2s duration, victim needs to attend to info abt crime- almost impossible during brief encounter- unreliable

episodic- taking witness back to crime scene can act as a cue to retrieve memories of crime

hm- couldnt encode new memories- stm and ltm are diff stores

KF- dmg to stm after motorcycle accident, affected verbal processing but visual processing largely unaffected = separate stm components

aim: investigate whether processing words by meaning (deeply) will lead to better memory recall than processing by physical features (shallowly)

procedure:
ppts not allowed to speak, had whiteboard pen
ensured right to withdraw and confidentiality
repeated measures design
ppts shown words and asked y/n questions abt them
each word shown for approx 3s
controls- silence, individually

results:
shallow mean- 2.1
deep mean- 4.4
deep words recalled more than shallow, suggesting more effective recall in memory

aim: see if theres a correlation between sleep and agg

sample: 10 ppts (5m+f), 16-19yo from nw college

procedure: had to answer all qs on a scale of 1-5 (1 = completely wrong 5 = completely right)
eg Is it wrong to stand up to an AF? 1-5
asked how theyd rate their agg out of 50 and hours of sleep night before

results: very weak negative correlation between sleep and agg

investigate gender diffs in prosocial and antisocial bhvr

researcher must have a home office licence and certificates that allow them to use animals in research

any use of anaesthetics must be used by an appropriately qualified specialist

social enviro of animal must be appropriate for the species

pain and suffering should be kept to a minimum + if prolonged animal should be euthenised

speciesism- one species discrim against another species for own benefit

pain and suffering- should be kept to a minimum whilst still achieving aims of research

sentience- lvl of sentience animal has needs to be considered. any animal with cns considered to be sentient

types of research- some exps cant be carried out on humans bc too unethical, outcomes would lead to development in medication

benefits of research- can lead to improved lives of humans and animals

validity + reliability- can be highly controlled and allows for replication, easier to remain detached, so easier to treat as objects = results more objective

comparing generations- more animals breed and mature faster than humans- can study causes and effects quicker

physiological diffs- too diff to humans, results not gen

animal responses to drugs- can change when tested on humans

anthropomorphism- possibility of attributing animals w human characteristics eg facial expressions may not mean the same

way in which the experiment is carried out should minimise pain and distress

number of animals should be kept to a minimum/maximum info must be gained

for animal research to be justified, animal suffering should be low, medical benefit high, quality of research high

1. convo between therapist and client to identify object or situation that causes anxiety
2. development of anxiety hierarchy- least to worst fear
3. relaxation training- therapist teaching and practicing relaxation techniques with client
4. gradual exposure

fully expose person w phobia to their fear- eventually calm down and show that they arent in danger