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W9 Language - Coggle Diagram

- - - - frequency word appears in language
      - Word frequency effect
        
        illustrated using lexical decision task
        
        :snail: RT for low frequency words (reverie)
        
        :one: judging whether words are actual words (eg. reverie, cratily, history, garvola)
        
        faster RT to high-frequency words (home) than low-frequency words (hike)
      - Zipf's Law
        
        small number of :arrow_up: frequency words and large number of :arrow_down: frequency words
        
        sample of 36.8 billion words taken from Wikipedia articles
        
        "the" used 2.4 million times
        
        "of" appears 1.3 million times
        
        logarithmic distribution of words
        
        applies to many languages
    - - shown with lexical decision task
        
        priming
        
        recently used neural pathways have residual activation
    - - spreading activation of semantic network models
        
        words in same lexical network prime associated words
      - Lexical decision task
        https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fh0031564
        
        :one: shown pairs of words one above the other and decide whether both are words
        
        affirmative responses faster for associated words than non associated words
    - - Examples
        
        Biased Dominance
        
        Prior Context
        
        both meanings of bug activated
        
        context activates less frequent meaning more strongly
        
        :snail: RT
        
        \\ Secret agents saw a lot of bugs \\
        
        Balanced Dominance
        
        No Prior Context
        
        The cast worked into the night
        
        both meanings of cast activated as both equally likely
        
        temporary ambiguity
        
        later context leads to :arrow_up: activation of relevant meaning
        
        slide 64
  - - - :zap: language processing :arrow_right: neural pathways strengthened
    - - :snail: language processing :arrow_right: neural pathways lost
  - - - lexeme has more than one meaning
        
        bug :arrow_right: insect, listening device, cold
      - Factors in resolving ambiguity
        
        Meaning Dominance
        
        Balanced Dominance
        
        all meanings are equally likely
        
        Biased Dominance
        
        one meaning more frequent than other meaning
        
        Context
        
        usually added before ambiguous word
    - - structure has more than one meaning
      - Syntax
        
        Online Sentence Processing
        
        Temporary Ambiguities
        
        Ambiguous sentences
        
        https://drive.google.com/open?id=19oYY8Fulp08MKN81tKh5QCJHZLnZlZNf&usp=drive_fs
        
        The girl hit the boy with red flowers
        
        Garden Path Sentences
        
        After the musician played the piano…
        was wheeled off the stage
        
        sentence that tricks reader into parsing one structure only to realise it is inaccurate
        
        illustrate temporary ambiguity
        
        one structural organisation adopted => error realised => new organisation adopted
        
        The horse raced past the barn fell
        
        RESOLVING
        
        :question: wait for more context before parsing
        
        fewer mis-parsed sentences
        
        higher cognitive load
        
        Garden Path Model
        
        Modular Approach
        
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        Heuristics
        
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        Constraint-Based Approach
        
        Interactive Approach
        
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        Types
        
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        online => in real time
      - Morphemes
        
        Types
        
        un-
        
        reverses the verb
        
        unlock
        
        falsifies an adjective
        
        unhappy
        
        -able
        
        enables a verb
        
        testable
        
        Ambiguous words
        
        unlockable
        
        un-lockable => not lockable
        
        unlock-able => can be unlocked
        
        unbreakable
        
        un-breakable => not breakable
        
        unbreak-able => able to unbreak
        
        RESOLVING
        
        depends on frequency of base adjective or verb
        
        https://drive.google.com/open?id=19bONSurOYYPI5kqWCVij5C2cC91lxm0g&usp=drive_fs
- - - - pairing between a form (word, sign:ok_hand::skin-tone-4:) and a concept (meaning)
  - - - :one: Identify location of cough in sentence
      - 95% of people say cough does not overlap with speech sound
      - location may be poorly identified
- - - - construct sentences that include given info and new info
        
        Given info :arrow_right: info known by listener
        
        New info :arrow_right: info heard for 1st time
      - new info in 1st sentence becomes given info in 2nd sentence
      - Importance of GN Contract
        
        :one: presented pairs of sentences
        
        :two: Press button when understood 2nd sentence
        
        We checked the picnic supplies. The beer was warm
        
        We got some beer out of the trunk. The beer was warm
        
        :snail: RT for 1st pair because it does not mention beer
        
        reader needs time to infer that beer is part of picnic supplies
      - expectations of given and new info may differ across speech communities
    - - "mutual knowledge and beliefs
      - accumulating information about what other person knows
        
        doctor knowing patient is doctor
      - Establishing Common Ground
        
        studying conversation transcripts
        
        Referential Communication Task
        
        exchanging referential info about an object by describing and naming
        
        :one: Director (A) and Matcher (B) have matching sets of 12 cards w pictures of abstract shapes
        
        :two: B has to match A card order through conversation
        
        :three: After completion A reshuffles cards and Steps 1 and 2 repeated
        
        Conversations are shorter and smoother for repeats
        
        can refer to cards using references created during 1st round
        
        common ground established :arrow_right: know what the other person knows
      - Benefits
        
        Entrainment
        
        synchronisation between partners
        
        names in the referential communication task
        
        gestures, speaking rate, body language, pronunciation
  - - - hearing statement with a specific syntactical construction
        :arrow_up: chances of using same construction in spoken sentences
      - allows speakers to coordinate grammatical forms in conversations
        
        :arrow_down: computational load in conversations
      - Syntactic Priming EXP
        
        :one: Participant told that they would be communicating with other participants
        
        :two: Participant and confederate separated by wall each with a set of picture cards
        
        :three: Confederate initiates with priming statement to describe picture card for participant to find
        
        :four: Participant selects correct picture card and takes turn to describe picture card for confederate to find
        
        The girl gave the book to the boy
        
        The girl gave the boy the book
        
        participant descriptions matched synatactic construction of priming statement 78% of time
        
        evidence for syntactic priming
  - - - understanding other's feelings, thoughts and emotions
      - helps in understanding what partner means
    - - interpreting and reacting to gestures, tone, facial expressions
    - - anticipating when to enter the conversation
- - - - :bee: -> waggle dance to indicate flower locations
      - :monkey: have different calls for "greeting" and "danger"
  - - - language made up of small units which are combined to form larger units
      - words :arrow_right: phrases :arrow_right: sentences
    - - allows certain permutations of components and not others
      - i.e. grammar
- - - - rewarded for using correct language
      - not rewarded when language used improperly
  - - - children have universal grammar that they adopt to their specific language
      - ability to produce sentences they have not heard or been reinforced on before
        
        I hate you
        
        I holded the rabbits
- - - - "smallest units that convey meaning that can be combined to create new meanings
        
        free morphemes (cat, cheap)
        
        bound morphemes (-er, -ing)
      - :star: Words
        
        spoken or signed symbols that convey meaning
        
        made of one or more morphemes
        
        combined to create complex meanings
        
        :star: Syntax
        
        hierarchical organisation of information :question:
        
        Behavioural approach
        
        Statistical regularities
        
        observable patterns in ways words are sequenced
        
        help infants learn speech segmentation
        
        perception of individual words even when there are no audible pauses between words
        
        Nativist
        
        Productive
        
        set of rules to construct novel sentences
        
        using grammatical rules to produce or form different words
        
        -ed, -s
    - - /b/ vs /p/
      - /ph/
    - - categories of speech sounds encompassing prototypes and atypical exemplars
        
        categories can differ across languages
        https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-08557-7
        
        steeper VOT slope for English :flag-gb: than Mandarin :flag-cn:
        
        bilinguals :arrow_right: slope does not change when switching languages but slope of dominant language is used
        
        suggests categories are gradual
        
        lower voice onset time (VOT) boundary for English :flag-gb: than Mandarin :flag-cn:
      - can be combined in many ways
        
        https://drive.google.com/open?id=19Zv00eyxshk4VozuQ8B1RaVhDjQJlhcD&usp=drive_fs
- - - - "negative response that occurs 400ms after word is heard or read
      - elicited in response to semantically incongruent words
    - - The cats won't BAKE
        
        Graph Results
        
        N400 response to semantically incongruent
      - The cats won't BAKING
        
        P600 response to syntactic incongruence
        
        N400 response to semantic incongruence
      - The cats won't EATING
        
        P600 response to syntactic incongruence
    - - "positive response that occurs 600ms after word is heard or read
      - elicited in response to syntactic incongruence
    - - examined effect of phonological and semantical characteristics of terminal words on ERP
      - They sat around without saying a WORD
        
        normal response
      - They sat around without saying a WORM
        
        N400 response to semantic incongruence
      - They sat around without saying a BRICK
        
        PMN response to phonologically unexpected word
        
        N400 response to semantic incongruence
    - - Phonological Mismatch Negativity
      - negative response that occurs 200ms after word is heard or read
    - - listened to 3 versions of story
        
        The band was very popular and Joe was sure the concert would be sold out. Amazingly,he was able to get a seat down in front. He couldn’t believe how close he was when hesaw the group walk out onto the (:one: stage :two: guitar :three: barn) and start playing.
      - Results
        
        :guitar: has :arrow_down: N400 response because it is event related
        
        barn has :arrow_up: N400 response because it is event-unrelated
        
        related words activated by scenario and context