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Paper 3 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - comparison level
        -to judge how one partner compares to another potential one
        -level is based on memories of past experiences combined with expectations of what we want and can expect in the future and social norms through media -also measured by how much reward we think we deserve to receive which can be heavily impacted by self
      - comparison level for alternatives (CLALt)
        -theory predicts that we will only stay in our current relationship if we deem it to be more rewarding than the alternatives
        -if we meet someone else or the relationship is no longer rewarding, we refer to the CLALt to determine the costs and rewards associated with staying or leaving the relationship
        -if the rewards are greater, the existing relationship may be terminated and a new one found
      - Stages of relationship of development 1.sampling stage-
  - - - Natural selection- ability to survive in a particular environment
      - Sexual selection- ability to attract/find a mate and reproduce successfully -two types of mating strategies and reason why
        
        Intra-sexual selection
        -mate competition as less females able to reproduce
        -males compete with other males for 'access' to members of the opposite sex
        -'winners' mate and pass on their genes
        -intra-sexual selection lead to certain patterns of human reproduction behaviour
        -male aggression- the most aggressive male is more likely to reproduce
        -males prefer young females as it is signs of fertility leading to reproductive success
        -men like woman with childlike faces, small nose and chin as they look younger this way
        
        Inter-sexual selection
        -female strategy is quality over quantity
        -females make a greater investment of time, commitment and other sources before, during and after birth
        -need to be choosy with males as they seek a male who will provide healthy offspring and support them with resources before, during and after child birth
        the impact of mating behaviour is that females have to be choosy as their mates genes with be passed down to offspring- need to be able to survive and have desirable characteristics so they can then have offspring of their own
        -wooman like men who have mature faces, square jaw, tall as this makes them seem stronger and be able to pass these genes down to their children
        
        Anisogamy
        -the difs between male and female sex cells
        -male cells (sperm) are small, mobile, and continuously produced from puberty to old age
        female cells (ova) are larger static and produced at intervals for a limited number of years
        the consequences of anisogamy are that there are plenty of fertile males but fewer females
  - - - findings:
        for short term couples, similarities of attitudes and values was the most significant predictor of closeness
        for long term couples complementarity of needs was the only predictor of closeness
    - - complementarity
        -this is all about the ability of the partners to meet each others needs
        -two partners compliment each other- best when one possesses traits that the other lacks
        important in long term relationships
      - similarity in attitudes
        -it is important for partners to value the same things in life and find the same things important for the relationship to continue
        -if they don't agree or find that they funamentally disagree on something that they find to be important, the relationship will fizzle out
        important in short term relationships
      - social demography
        factors that influence the chance of meeting a partner in the first place
        includes:
        -geographical location (proximity)
        -social class
        -educational level
        -ethnic group
        -religion
        anyone too dif to ourselves is ruled out
- - - - positive symptoms
        focus on displaying of behaviours that show a concerning loss of touch with reality
        e.g. hallucinations and delusions and disorganised thinking
        usually occur in acute, short episodes with normal periods between and sufferers generally respond well to medication
        ADD to sufferers living experience
      - negative symptoms
        focus on displaying of behaviours that show a concerning disruption of normal emotions and actions
        e.g. avolition (loss of motivation), affective flattening (less range of emotions), alogia (speech poverty)
        usually occur in longer-lasting episodes and are resistant to medication
        most sufferers not able to function effectively in society such as in a relationship or at work
        SUBTRACT from sufferers living experience
  - - - the schizophrenogenic mother (Fromm-Reichmann, 1948)
      - double bind theory
      - expressed emotion (EE)
  - - - reliability- clinicians must be able to reach the same conclusions at two dif points in time (test-retest reliability) or dif clinicians must reach the same conclusions (inter-rater reliability)
        
        cultural differences in diagnosis
        research shows that there is a significant variation between countries when it comes to diagnosing sz
        Copeland (1971) gave a description of a patient. 69% of US and only 2% of british psychiatrists diagnosed sz
        Luhrmann (2015) interviewed 60 adults diagnosed with sz in Ghana, India and the US, many of the African and Indian subjects reported positive experiences with the voices they heard whereas US patients were more likely to report these voiced as being violent and hateful
        
        AO3
        not reliable
        hoped that the diagnostic manuals would provide a standardised method of recognising mental disorders yet the behaviour of an individual is always open to some interpretation
        the process is actually more subjective than hoped
        unreliable symptoms
        delusions have to be bizarre- 50 psychiatrists were asked to differentiate between bizarre and non-bizarre delusions, they produced inter-rater reliability correlations of only around 0.4
        this suggests that if this central diagnostic requirement lack sufficient reliability, it cannot be an accurate method of distinguishing between sz and no sz patients
  - - - twin studies (Gottesman, 1991) have identified strong concordance rates
        MZ= 0.48 (48% risk)
        DZ= 0.17 (17% risk)
        parents 0.06 (6% risk)
        general population 0.01 (1% risk)
        suggests that genetics play a big role in the likely hood of developing sz if you share genetics with a sufferer
    - - dopamine is a chemical substance (neurotransmitter) manufactured in the brain that transmits messages between neurons (brain cells)
        dopamine appears to work dif in patients with sz- as dopamine is partly important in the functioning of several brain systems- may cause symptoms of sz- in particular the cortex and subcortex
        
        hyperdopaminergia in the subcortex
        og version of the hypothesis focused on abnormal dopamine activity in the subcortex
        an excess of dopamine receptors in broca's area (responsible for speech production) may be associated with poverty of speech and/or auditory hallucinations
        
        Hypodopaminergia in the cortex
        more recent versions of the hypothesis focua on abnormal systems in the cortex
        low levels of dopamine in the profrontal cortex (responsible fo thinking ad decision making) may play a role in the negative symptoms of sz
    - - patterns of structure or activity in the brain that occur with a sz experiene
        as they occur simultaneously this could lead us to believe that the patterns observed are implicated in causing sz
        negative correlation between levels and severity of avolition
        as activity levels +, avolition - - shows a neural correlate
        happens with both +ve and -ve symptoms
  - - - typical antipsychotics
        introduced in 1950s
        e.g. chlorpromazine
        work by blocking receptors of dopamine, suppress hyperactivity and disorganised thinking
        side effects- increase heart rate, blurred vision
        effectiveness-
        +ve-
        hallucinations and delusions diminish within a few days
        -ve-
        60-75% of D2 dopamine receptors in the mesolimbic pathway must be blocked to be effective
        -ve-
        other d2 receptors in other brain areas are also blocked causing harmful side effects
      - atypical antipsychotics
        introduced in 1980s
        e.g. olanzapine, clozapine
        work by regulating levels of dopamine and serotonin - improves memory and motor function side effects- gain weight, unresponsiveness to insulin
        effectiveness-
        -ve-
        only temporarily occupy the D2 receptors, the rapidly dissociate to allow dopamine transmission
        +ve-
        done to avoid side effects
        +ve-
        also occupy serotonin receptors and are claimed to benefit the negative and cog symptoms of sz as well as positive symptoms
      - AO3
        drug therapy
        positives
        effectiveness: antipsychotics vs placebo
        meta-analysis of 65 studies including 600 patients concluded that 64% patients taken off antipsychotics and given a placebo relapsed within 12 months compared to 27% of those who stayed on antipsychotics
        shows effectiveness of antipsychotics treatment
        -ve of this is ethical issues of no informed consent, deception, harm and no right to withdraw to those in the study
        are atypical antipsychotics better?
        meta-analysis of 15 studies found no significant difference between typical and atypical antipsychotics in their effect on symptoms
        side effects were dif- aptients on atypical gained more weight but had fewer extrapyramidal side effects than those on typical
        shows that atypical is better as not harmful side effects like typical have
      - AO3
        drug therapy
        negatives
        ethical issues- long tesrm use of antipsychotics can result in:
        tardive dyskinesia- a syndrome in which the patient experiences involuntary movements of the face and body
        agranulocytosis- a deficiency of granulocyles in the blood, causing increased vulnerability to infection
        neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS)- a life-threatening idiosyncratic reaction to antipsychotic drugs characterised by fever, altered mental status, muscle rigidity and autonomic dysfunction
        extrapyramidal side effects
        typical antipsychotics produce movement problems such as parkinsoism in 50% of patients
        they affect the extra pryamidal area of the brain which helps control motor function
        distressing symptoms cause many patients to stop taking their medication
        raise ethical issues in prescribing these drugs
- - - - Brunner et al (1993):
        studied a large Dutch family where all the males had a mutant form of the MAOA gene
        all had borderline retardation and reacted aggressively when angry, fearful or frustrated, suggesting that abnormal MAOA activity is associated with aggression
      - Caspi et al (2002):
        discovered 2 variants of MAOA, one associated with high level of MAOA (MAOA-H) and one with low levels (MAOA-L)
        -MAOA-L variant= significantly more likely to display aggressive behaviour but only if maltreated as children
        -MAOA-H variant who were maltreated and MAOA-L who had not been maltreated- no antisocial behaviour
        aka gene-environment interactions
        -MAOA-L is more frequent in populations with a history of warfare, with about 2/3 of people in this population having this version of the gene- the warrior gene
      - McDermott et al (2009):
        MAOA-L pps more likely to display higher levels of aggression when provoked compared to MAOA-H pps
        **Stuart et al (2014): 97 men who took part in IPV with MAOA-L had highest levels of violence and aggression, inflicted more injuries to partners than MAOA-H men
  - - - Amygdala
        -evaluates sensory info, prompts a response. if certain areas are stimulated, animal response aggressively
        -plays key role in humans and animals and how they respond to their environment (threats and challenges)
        -kluver and blucy (1937)- amygdala of dominant monkey destroyed, lost its dominant place in group
        -removing these areas (humans and animals) of the amygdala eliminates aggressive response
      - Hippocampus
        -involved in forming LTMs
        -if animal encounters one it has previously been attacked by, it responds aggressively
        -impaired functioning stops the nervous system putting stimuli into context, may cause inappropriate aggressive responses
        -habitually violent offenders show impaired hippocampal functioning (Boccardi et al, 2010)
    - - serotonin
        -a neurotransmitter that plays a key role in aggression
        -exerts calming, inhibitory effect on neuronal firing in the amygdala
        -ppl less able to control impulsive and aggressive behaviour (serotonin deficiency hypothesis)
        -low serotonin levels, aggression more likely (denson et al, 2012)
        drugs which lower serotonin levels, associated with high in aggression in men but not in woman (Mann et al, 1990)
        
        Virkkunen et al (1994):
        -serotonin lower in impulsive offenders, also more sleep problems
        -serotonin regulates sleep patterns
        -low serotonin = sleep problems = supports serotonin deficiency hypothesis
      - Testosterone
        -a male hormone associated with aggression
        -produces male characteristics including aggression
        -testosterone acts on brain areas involved in controlling aggression
        -removing testosterone reduces aggression
        -restore normal levels- aggressive behaviour returning (Sapolsky, 1998)
        increasing levels- more aggression (Giammanco et al, 2005)
        
        Dolan et al (2001):
        -positive correlation between high testosterone and aggressive behaviour in offenders in a UK max security hospital
        -men had history of impulsive violent behaviour
        are men more aggressive than woman due to more aggressive?
        Archer (2009): explains why men are more aggressiev
        Daly and Wislon (1998): levels highest 21-35 years old, also increase in male-one-male aggressive behaviour
- - - - In psychology:
        whole person is studied
        we're the results of everything (genes, thoughts, learning and environment)
        changing behaviour doesn't come from changing just one part of the person but from a set of interrelated parts
        
        AO3 positives
    - - In psychology:
        dif ways of viewing the same behaviour
        higher levels are more complicated (holistic), lower levels are more simple (reductionist)
        all behaviours can be viewed from any of the levels
        highest level: explanations of behaviour from a social and cultural perspective e.g. traditions, norms, rules ect
        middle level: explanations of behaviour from psychological perspective e.g. cognitions, learning, psychodynamic etc
        lower level: explanations of behaviour from a bio perspective e.g. gene, neurochemistry ect
        
        AO3 positives