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Paper 1 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Trevathan- taking turn in the infant--caregiver interactions is important for the development of social and lang skills
      - Tronick et al- smiling is an example of these interactions
        asked mother to stop smiling at infant
        the infant smiled and tried to tempt mother inti interact/smile back
        the infant became confused and increasingly distresses of no response from mother
      - Brazelton- babies rhythm is and important sigh to later communication- the regularity of infants signals allows a caregiver to predict an infants behaviour and respond appropriately
    - - Isabella et al- securely attached mother- infant pairs has shown more instances of IS in the 1st year- strong emotional attachment= high levels of synchrony
      - Heimann- more imitation= better quality of relationship at 3 months (not clearly the case tho- EVs)
      - Meltzoff + Moore (1977)- observed the start of IS in infants from 2 weeks old
        adult told to display either 1 of 3 facial expressions or 1 of 3 distinct gestures
        infants response was filmed + identified by independent observers
        association found between expression and gesture the adult displayed and the actions of the babies
        study later done on 3 day old infants (1983)
- - - - SSRIs typical treatment is a 20mg dose of Fluoxetine (Prozac) that can be increased if it is not benefiting the patient (can be increased to 60mg if needed)
        it take 3-4 months of daily use of SSRIs to impact upon symptoms
        
        If SSRIs are not effective in 3-4 months then dose can be increased and even combined with other drugs such as Tricyclics (dies same as SSRIs but with more severe side effects so not used first) or SNRIs (serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhalators- increases serotonin and noradrenaline)
        
        These drugs can also be used alongside cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) to treat OCD
        the drugs help reduce the sufferers emotional symptoms like anxiety or depression so that the patient can engage more effectively with CBT
        
        AO3
        positives
        drug therapy is effective at tackling OCD symptoms shown through research into SSRIs at reducing the severity of OCD symptoms (Soomro 2009)
        drugs are cost effective and non disruptive in comparison to other treatments like psychotherapy and do not disrupt patients life’s
        negatives
        drugs can have side effects that make patients suffer more such as weight gain, dry mouth, sexual dysfunction and loss if memory. Coming off the drugs is also a slow process of reducing the dosage over a period of 6 months
        Unreliable evidence for drug treatments
        companies that sponsor the research may suppress any results that do not support the drug therefore making the data on the effectiveness of drugs untrustworthy
        some cases of OCD follow trauma
        although it is seen as biological some can be a response of trauma of a event making this drug treatment inappropriate for them
  - - - OCD - a disorder categorised by obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviours
        
        Symptoms or signs
        -recurrent obsessions (a behaviour) and compulsions (a cognition)
        -recognition by the individual that the obsessions and compulsions are excessive and or unreasonable -the person is distressed or impaired and daily life is disrupted by the obsessions and compulsion's
        
        Diagnosis feature's
        many different characteristics
        behavioural- compulsions- repetitive behaviours, done to reduce anxiety from obsessions
        e.g. compulsive hand washing is carried out as a response to an obsessive fear of germs
        behavioural- avoidance- managed by avoiding situations that trigger anxiety
        e.g. sufferers who wash hands repeatedly may avoid coming into contact with germs (staying inside house)
        emotional- anxiety of the obsessions and compulsions can be overwhelming
        emotional- OCD is often accompanied by depression
        emotional- sometimes people feel irrational guilt or disgust
        cognitive- obsessions are recurrent and persistent thoughts (intrusive)
        cognitive- insight into anxiety- the person recognises that the thoughts are a product of their own mind not being put into their mind
        cognitive- the thoughts can be embarrassing/ frightening so the person may not want to talk about them with friends
      - Phobias - a persistent or unreasonable fear of an object, activity or situation (comer 2008)
        
        Diagnosis feature's
        intense, persistent, irrational fear
        response to fear is disproportionate and leads to avoidance of phobic object, event or situation
        fear is serve enough to interfere with everyday life
        condition may or may not be accompanied by panic attacks
        
        Symptoms or signs
        Behavioural- how a person acts around the feared object or situation which is likely to be varying states of panic leading to avoidance.
        Emotional- how a person feels when experiencing anxiety, an unpleasant state of high arousal making it very difficult to relax or experience positive emotions.
        cognitive- how a person thinks bout phobic stimuli and in particular the irrational processing of info and the resistance to rational arguments.
      - Depression - a mood disorder low mood and or low energy levels
        
        Symptoms or signs
        c -persistent feelings of sadness
        b -loss of interest in activities
        b-trouble sleeping or oversleeping
        p -appetite or weight changes
        b-fatigue or decreased energy
        c-difficulty thinking clearly or quickly
        e-irritability, frustration or pessimism
        p-physical aches and pains
        c-recurrent thoughts of death or suicide
        e-low mood
        e-low self-esteem
        
        Diagnosis feature's
        Depression can affect the thoughts, feelings, behaviour and physical well-being of an individual
        it is not just sadness but a set of complex symptoms that must be causing distress or impaired functioning in social and or occupational roles.
  - - - Negative self-schemas
        a schema is a building block of knowledge, a package of ideas and info that has developed with experience
        a self-schema is a package of ideas that we have about ourselves
        people who have become depressed have developed negative self-schemas and therefore they interpret all the info about themselves in a negative way
      - The negative triad
        Beck built on the idea of maladaptive responses and suggested that people with depression become trapped in a cycle of negative thoughts
        they have a tendency to view themselves the world and the future in pessimistic ways- the triad of impairments
        -negative view of the self
        -negative view of the world
        -negative view of the future
        
        MUST KNOW FOR EXAM
      - Faulty info processing
        he believed that people who are depressed make fundamental errors in logic
        he proposed that depressed people tend to selectively attend to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore positive aspects
        there is a tendency to blow small problems out of proportion with thinking in terms of black and white and ignoring the middle ground; you are success or a failure, rather than not good at some things but ok at others
      - AO3
        positives
        It has good supporting evidence- much research has supported the proposal that depression is associated with faulty info processing, negative self-schemas and the triad of impairments
        it has practical application in CBT- becks cognitive explanation forms the basis of cognitive- behavioural therapy
        all cognitive aspects of depression can be challenged in CBT
        negative
        it does not explain all aspects of depression- the theory explains the basic symptoms of depression however it is a complex disorder with a range of symptoms, not all of which can be explained
    - - A- an Activating Event causes …
        B- and Individuals Beliefs which results in …
        C- a Consequence
      - If beliefs are subject to cognitive biases then they can cause irrational thinking which may produce undesirable behaviour's
      - AO3
        positive
        it has practical application in CBT- like becks explanation, Ellis’s explanation has led to successful therapy
        irrational negative beliefs are challenged and this can be,p to reduce depressive symptoms suggesting that the irrational beliefs had some role in the depression
        negative
        it only offers a partial explanation- some depression does occur as a result of an activating event (reactive depression)
        however not all depression arises as a result of an obvious cause
        it does not explain all aspects of depression- this explanation also does not explain why some individuals experience anger associated with their depression or why some patients suffer hallucinations and delusions
  - - - The genes associated with OCD are likely to affect the levels of key neurotransmitters as well as structures of the brain.
        abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitters
        certain brain circuits may be abnormal
        
        Neuroimaging (brain scanning) techniques have enabled researchers to study the brain in detail and to identify normal brain patterns- this therefore allows for comparisons with abnormal brain patterns
        
        2. Impaired decision making can be a characteristic of some cases of OCD
        this may be linked to abnormal functioning of the lateral frontal lobes of the brain
        the frontal lobes are responsible for logical thinking and making decisions
        
        3. The parahippocampal gyrus doesn’t function normally
        this part of the brain is associated with processing unpleasant emotions
        
        1. Low levels of serotonin lowers mood
        low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin will affect the processing of mood- relevant info, if this doesn’t take place effectively, mood is affected
        
        Other brain areas believed to be involved in OCD include the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and thalamus
        The thalamus is the brain area responsible for functions include cleaning, checking and other safety behaviours
        
        The OFC is involved in decision making and worry about social and other behaviour
        In OCD the OFC and the thalamus are believed to be overactive
        and overactive thalamus would result in the increased motivation to clean or check for safety
        if the thalamus was overactive the OFC would also become overactive as a result
        an overactive OFC would result in increased anxiety and increased planning to avoid anxiety
        
        AO3 neurotransmitters
        positive
        Allows medication to be developed which helps sufferers
        negitives
        drugs are not completely effective
        judg because administering SSRIs decreases OCD symptoms does not mean that this was the cause in the first place
        there is time delay between taking drugs to target the clans any improvements being made and yet the Chen jail imbalance is addressed in hours
        
        AO3 areas of the brain
        positives
        advances in technology have allowed researchers to investigate specific areas of the brain more accurately and OCD sufferers do seem to have excessive activity in the orbital frontal cortex
        cleaning and checking behaviours are hard wired in the thalamus
        the repetitive acts (compulsions) may be explained by the structure of the basal ganglia BUT not necessarily the obsessional thoughts
        negitives
        There are inconveniences found in the research as no system has been that always plays a role in OCD
        there neural change could be as a result of suffering from the disorder, not necessarily the cause of it
    - - It has been proposed that there is a genetic component to OCD which may help explain why patients often have other family members with OCD
        
        Mckeon and Murray- patients with OCD are more likely to have first degree relatives who suffer from anxiety disorders.
        
        Pauls et al- there is a much higher % of OCD sufferers in relatives of patients with OCD than in the control group without OCD.
        
        Bellodi eat al (2001)- claim that genetic fact play a role in the disorder. Using evidence from twin studies and family studies, they show that close relatives are more likely to have the disorder that more distant relatives.
        
        Candidate genes are ones which, through research, have been implicated in the development of OCD
        a possible candidate gene is the SERT gene which is involved in regulating serotonin, a neurotransmitter which facilitates message transfer across synapses.
        another possible candidate is the COMT gene which regulates the production of dopamine that affects motivation and drive.
        
        AO3 candidate genes
        positive
        Candidate genes are ones which through research have been implicated in the development of OCD
        negative
        there are too many genes involved
        psychologists have not been successful at pinning down all the genes involved
        each genetic variation only increases the risk of OCD by a fraction
        
        AO3 environmental factors
        individuals may gain a vulnrability towards OCD through genes that is then triggered by an environmental stressor
        Cromer (2007) found that over half the OCD patients in their sample had a traumatic event in the past, and the OCD was more severe in those with more than one trauma
        This means that it may more productive to focus on environmental causes as it seems that not all OCD is entirely genetic in origin
        
        AO3 genetics
        positive
        there is evidence to suggest there is a genetic component to the disorder. Best source of evidence for the importance of genes is twin studies (Nestadt 2010)
        negatives
        family studies could also be used to explain environmental influences
        close relatives of OCD sufferers may have observed and imitate the behaviours(SLT)
        it is difficult to untangle the effects of environment and genetic factors.
  - - - Classical conditioning
        
        Suggests that the person has learned to fear something if it is paired with a frightening event (learned an association between the neutral stimulus and conditioned stimulus
        expains why someone bitten by a dog may become scared of them and avoid them at all costs
        
        Examples
        Little Albert- child in a room with a white fluffy rat (no fear) then each time he went near it/ touched it a loud bang would happen which scared him
        because of this conditioning he feared rats (specially white fluffy ones) and other white fluffy things such as a fur white coat or a santa mask(associated it with the rat)
        neurtal stimulus (NS)- no fear of rats (before conditioning)
        a loud bang (unconditioned stimulus UCS)- causes fear and anxiety (before conditioning)
        rat (CS) + a loud bang (UCS)- fear (unconditioned response UCR) (during conditioning)
        rat (CS)- fear (CR) (evidence of conditioning
      - Operant conditioning
        
        Changing a behaviour because of a reward or for avoidance
        once a fear is established the individual then avoids the object or situation that produces the fear, in turn thus reduces anxiety and strengthens the fear the more it is avoided
        reinforced throuh negative reinforcement
        
        The two- process models of phobia acquisition Mowrer suggests that phobias are acquired as a result of CC and maintained by OC and people with phobias will go to great lengths to avoid this phobia
        the phobia creates lots of anxiety and unpleasant feelings so when avoiding it they reduce anxiety and return to feeling pleasant
  - - - Deviation from social norms
        
        AO1
        social norms are rules and standards created by a group of what is acceptable behaviours set for the group to adhere to in the social group
        people who behave differently (deviate) from these norms is abnormal
        some of these rules are unacceptable behaviour that are implicit (laughing at a funeral) and some are policed by laws and some are both (causing a disorder in public)
        these can change over time such as homosexuality used to be a crime but as people change their beliefs norms change and so can laws
        
        AO3
        positive
        gives distinction between desirable and undesirable and took into account effects it has on others
        social norms change with society progression
        this definition says that abnormal behaviour is behaviour that damages others
        negative
        although it changes with society it is very time dependent and correlations cannot be made between years so true knowledge of what is abnormal can’t be set as it can change
      - Failure to function adequately
        
        AO1
        Abnormality is when you can’t cope with everyday life demands and fail to function adequately (maintain standards of nutrition, hygiene, hold a job, maintain relationships)
        rosenham & seilgman (1989) suggest characteristics that define failure to function adequately;
        -suffering
        -maladaptiveness (danger to self)
        -vividness + unconventionality
        -unpredictability + loss of control
        -irrationality/ incomprehensibility
        -causes observer discomfort
        -violates moral/ social standards
        
        AO3
        negative
        people who choose alternative lifestyles such as not have a permanent home or doing extreme activities most wouldn’t do does not make them abnormal
        these behaviours being treated as failures to function adequatelly risk limiting personal freedoms and discrimination against minorities that choose those lifestyles
      - Statistical deviation
        
        AO1
        Mean/ median/ mode
        used as a way to represent the typical value in any set of data
        if we can define through typical data what is common/ normal/ desirable we can then also define what us not common/ abnormal/ undesirable
        
        AO3
        negative
        is being abnormal always undesirable/ a negative thing
        from this how do we identify behaviours that need treatment
        needs to be adapted to find infrequent and undesirable behaviours
        postive
        objective- mathematical nature makes it clear to see abnormalities + no opinion involved means no bias
        negative
        culture is not taken into account- in different cultures different things are desirable that in other cultures may be considered undesirable can’t generalise across cultures + the whole world
      - Deviation from ideal mental health
        
        AO1
        doesnt look at what makes someone abnormal but what makes someone normal to see what is psychologically healthy
        we can use this to see what deviates from this ideal
        Marie jahoda suggested we are good in mental health if we meet the following criteria
        -no symptoms or distress
        -rational (accurate perception of self)
        -self-actualisation (reach potential)
        -cope with stress
        -realistic view of the world
        -good self-esteem and no guilt
        -independence from other people
        -can work, love and enjoy leisure’s
        
        AO3
        positive
        focuses on the positive/ desirables rather than negatives/ undesirable's
        jahodas ideas link with “positive psychology” movements (scientific study of what makes life most worth living and meaningful lives and enhance experiences of love, work and play)
        negatives
        unrealistic criteria- jahoda suggests that most are abnormal according to to the criteria
        question how many need to be lacking to be abnormal - hard to measure this doesn’t allow for personal growth meaning is approach is not really useable when it comes to identifying abnormality
        negative
        labelling - making a judgement of a person failing to cope labels the, abnormal and doesn’t allow for situations in life such as depression after losing a job, home or relationship when this is actually normal to happen
        
        AO3
        negative
        cultural relativism
        some of jahodas classifications of ideal mental health are specific to Western European and North American cultures - they’re cultural bound
        self-actualisation can be considered self-indulgent in most of the world as is emphasis so much on the individual rather than family and community
        independance can be a bad thing in places such traits are typical of individualist cultures
        this can relate to other definitions of abnormality too
  - - - Systematic desensitisation (SD)
        Wolpe (1958)- two competing emotions cannot occur at the same time so if fear is replaced with relaxation the fear cannot continue
        this aims to teach a patient to learn a more appropriate association and is designed to reduce an unwanted response such as anxiety to a stimulus
        reciprocal inhibition is the process of inhibiting anxiety by substituting a complete response
        
        There are 3 processes involved in SD
        
        the anxiety hierarchy is constructed by the patient and the therapist. This is a stepped approach to getting the person to face their phobia from least to most frightening.
        
        the patient is trained in relaxation techniques so they can relax quickly and as deeply as possible.
        
        the patient is then exposed to the phobic stimulus whilst practicing the relaxation techniques as feelings of tension and anxiety arise. When this has been achieved the patient continues this process by moving up their hierarchy.
        treatment is successful when the patient can stay relaxed in situations high on the anxiety hierarchy.
        
        AO3
        postivives
        it is effective- these techniques have proven most effective with specific phobias when a particular phobic object/ situation can be identified- negative- less effective with agoraphobic and social phobias
        it is suitable for a diverse range of patients- it is a simple process that patients controls- often seen as most suitable form of treatment
        it is acceptable to patients- when given the choice between SD and flooding, more than often the patient chooses SD as it does not cause the same degree of trauma and actually involves a pleasant aspect (the relaxation techniques)
      - Flooding
        this involves overwhelming the individuals senses with the item or situation that causes anxiety so that the person realises that no harm will occur
        no relaxation techniques or step by step build up
        indivudual is exposed repeatedly and in an intensive way with their phobia
        individual has their senses flooded with thoughts, images and actual experiences of the object of their phobia
        
        Flooding stops phobic responses very quickly
        without the option for avoidance behaviour the patient quickly learns that the phobic stimulus is harmless (extinction)
        a learned response is extinguished when the CS is encountered without the UCS
        the result is that the CS no longer produces the CR which is fear.
        
        Ethics
        Flooding is not unethical as patients give their informed consent so they know exactly what is involved
        it is of course an unpleasant experience and a patient has to be properly prepared
        a patient would normally be given the choice of SD or flooding
        
        AO3
        postivive
        It is cost effective - the quick effect that flooding can have means that patients are free of their symptoms as soon as possible and this makes the treatment cheaper than alternatives
        negatives
        it is less effective for some types of phobias- flooding is less effective for treating more complex phobias like social phobias
        yhis may be because social phobias have cog aspects- an individual does not simply experience an anxiety response but thinks unpleasant thoughts about the social situation
        the treatment is traumatic for patients- flooding produces hiigh levels of fear and this can be very traumatic and as a result many patients refuse to start or complete treatment
  - - - It is a way of talking about how you think about yourself, the world and other people as well as how what you do affects your thoughts and feelings
        congintively it aims as a therapy to deal with thinking, such as challenging negative thoughts
        it also includes behavioural techniques such as behavioural activation which encourages patients to engage in those activities they are avoiding
        
        CBT can help to break the vicious cycle of maladaptive thinking, feelings and behaviours
        focuses on problems and difficulties of now instead of distress over past problems and looks for ways to improve the state of mind now
        when the sequence parts are outlined and understood they can be changed to better ways
        It aims to get the person to a point where they can ‘DIY’ and work out their own ways of tackling their problems
        
        CBT involves around 5-20 weekly or fortnightly sessions of 30-60 minutes
        first a assessment will be done to evaluate goals and formative plans for treatment, the patient will be give homework on certain goals and monitoring the treatment until cognitive and behaviour is changed, this is when therapy is completed
        
        Beck’s cognitive therapy
        developed to challenge the nagitive triad (beliefs) of the client to help the better through thinking positively
        
        The client will be assessed to discover severity of their condition
        
        The therapist will establish a baseline/ starting point prior to treatment to help monitor improvement throughout treatment
        
        The client is asked to provide info about how they perceive themselves, the future and the world
        
        The therapist would use a process of reality testing where their statement will be challenged with the reality and may also give homework of demonstrating their ability that contradicts their prior statement
        
        clients are made aware of their negative views to make irrational ideas reply with more optimistic and rational beliefs
        
        AO3 effectiveness
        effective
        CBT is effective in reducing symptoms of depression and in preventing relapse and there is a large body of evidence to support this (March et al, 2007)
        it is the most effective psychological treatment for moderate depression
        it is as effective as antidepressants for many types of depression. (Fava et al, 1994)
        not effective
        in some cases depression may be so severe that patients cannot motivate themselves to engage in the therapy
        in these cases, it is possible to treat the patient with antidepressants and then CBT can commence at a later date
        this is therefore a limitation as it means that CBT cannot be used as the sole treatment in all cases
    - - Ellis (1962) argues that irrational thoughts are the main cause of all types of emotional distress and behaviour disorders
        REBT is bases on the premise that whenever we become upset, it is not the events taking place in our lives that upset us; it is the beliefs that we hold that cause us to become depressed, anxious, enraged and more
        
        Ellis also identified different types of disputes that can be made
        
        empirical arguments- consistence with reality
        
        logical arguments- logical to follow beliefs fully
        
        pragmatic arguments- consequences of intolerant beli
        
        Ellis identified what he saw as the most common faulty beliefs experienced by people with mental health problems
        
        I’m worthless unless I’m competent at everything I try
        
        I must be approved of and loved by everyone I meet
        
        my unhappiness is always caused by external events and I cannot control my emotional response
        
        it is upsetting when things are not the way I would like them to be
        
        certain people are thoroughly bad and should be severely blamed or punished for it
        
        because something once affected my life, it will do so indefinitely - there is always a perfect solution to human problems and it is awful if it is not found
        
        I shoul depend on others who are stronger than I am
        
        it is easier to avoid difficulties and responsibilities than to face them
        
        if something unpleasant happens I should keep dwelling on it
- - - - AO3
        positives
        research support
        Migram's pps, when asked who was in charge- they replied that the experimenter was
        they explained that when experimenter took responsibility for teachers actions, found it hard to continue disobeying
        results suggest that pps did enter agentic state agentic state goes beyond social influence Fennis and Aarts (2012)
        agentic state= ppl feel less in control of own actions
        more likely to accept external sources of control
        decrease of personal control= increase in obedience + increase in bystander apathy (less likely to help others in need) if told to
        suggests agentic state explains a number of behaviours (such as soldiers in wars)
        negatives
        doesn't explain all obedience
        Police Battalion 101- German police shot many Polish civilians even tho many officers given chance to reassigned duties if didn't want to
        Staub (1989)- German doctors at Auschwitz didn't shift to agentic state when doing horrific operations on prisoners
        doing it over a long period of time caused them to obey, not switching their thinking
    - - AO3
        positive
        explains cultural differences in obedience studies
        different cultures have dif attitudes towards obedience
        expalins why obedience ranged from 16-85%
        authority more repected in some cultures
        shows how children are raised to perceive authority dif in dif cultures
        negatives
        doesn't explain all disobedience
        in hierarchies where authority is clear, disobedience still happens
        Rank and Jacobson (1977)- nurses ordered by dr to give excessive drug to patient
        16/18 disobeded even tho dr is the clear authority figure
        Milgram's pps showed disobedience
        suggests that innate levels of disobedience have greater effect then legitimate authority
    - - asked Mr Wallace questions on words in a list he learnt- wrong answer= shock the
        shocks went from 15-450 volts
        told to increase volts every wrong answer
        learner said wrong answers most of time- experimenter (in lab coat) directed teacher to shock learner
        4 prods if teacher didn't not obey to shock learner
        1.please continue
        2.the experiment requires you to continue
        3.it is absolutely essential that you continue
        
        you have no other choice but to continue
        
        Results
        65% (2/3) of pps continued to highest level of 450V
        all pps continued to 300V
        carried out experiment in 18 different variations
        pps obeyed due to agentic state and legit authority
        
        AO3
        positives
        research support Beaucois et al (2012)
        historical evidence (The Mai Lai Massacre)
        Historical validity later studies gave same results as milgram's study (not a child of its time)
        gender bais?- only male ppson og study -
        milgrams later study done w woman and showed similar results to males
        suggests that milgram may have been correct about obedience being situational not dispositional
        YET
        Eagly (1978)redone with female pps showed higher obedience as woman are socialised to be more obedient than men
        extenral validity- tested on nurses getting wrong order from dr of the wrong dosage or a drug not even allowed on the ward
        21/22 nurses prepared to obey reasoning that their role is to listen to orders from dr (authority figure)
        shows that obedience happens in real world situations
        negatives
        socially sensitive
        Mandel (1998) allowing WW11 war criminals the excuse that their actions were due to situational factors insults the memory of all those killed by the nazis
        low internal validity
        Milgram- only 75% of pps thought it was real
        suggests that pps could have behaved due to demand characteristics trying to fulfil aims of the study
        ethical issues
        no concern of wellbeing of pps
        verbal prods made it uncomfortable /difficult to withdraw even if they had been give the right
      - factors that effect obedience; proximity (closeness to authority figure), uniform (what bthe authority figure is wearing making it feel legit), location (where they have to obey- official or temp places)
  - - - Conclusion:
        pps asked why they conformed:
        -didn't want group to reject them
        -uncomfortable with disagreeing with group (especially when group was unanimous- strangers)
        
        didn't trust their own eyesight as group was unanimous
        -didn't trust their own opinion as group was unanimous
        ppl will conform due to group pressure even when they believe they're right
    - - Unanimity
        -an ally was introduced who agreed with pps
        -unanimity of group was broken
        -conformity- 5%
        -ally - role model and showed real pps that they don't need to conform
        -later added a confederate who disagreed w group and real pps
        -conformity- 9%
        conformity less likely if groups unanimous position was broken
      - Task difficulty
        -og lines had obvious correct answer
        -later lines made more similar in length to increase task difficulty
        -conformity increased but % not reported
        conclusion-
        easy task= trust own judgement= less likely to conform
        hard task= look to others for guidance/ correct answer= more likely to conform to group
      - group size
        -varied number of confederates from 1-15
        -conformity increased when group size increased up to a certain point
        -optimum group size for the most conformity was 3 confederates and 1 real pps (32% conformity)
        conformity levelled out after this group size
      - AO3
        positives
        research evidence
        Lucas et al (2006)
        when pps given hard maths questions, more likely to accept answers of others even if its wrong
        task difficulty more important if pps has low self-efficacy
        less influential if high self-efficacy
        supports Asch (task difficulty) but also showed that individual differences as factors
        a paradigm method
        the go to way to test conformity
        replicated many times, different time periods and cultures
        shows internal reliability
        negatives
        pps knew they were in a study (may cause demand characteristics)- task not real so results not applicable to real world
        not real group- real world people know group members (consequences to disagreeing)
        findings not generalizable to real world or real world examples of conformity
        cultural limitations
        US pps- not generalisable to other countries or collectivst countries
        Smith and Bond (2006): replicated in various cultures
        Africa, Asia and South America (collectivist): 37%- more likely to conform due to importance of social bonds and interconnectedness
        results may not explain conformity in other cultures
        gender bias
        male pps
        neto (1995): females socialised dif to males- respond to conformity dif
        not applicable to female conformity
        child of its time due to US culture of the 1950s
        when replicated by Perrin and Spencer (1980) in the UK only 1/396 conformed
        shows that students in 1950s US were expected to conform but now people expected to be more free thinking
  - - - Procedure
        Mock prison set up, basement of Stanford uni 24 male student volunteers- psychologically + physically healthy- prisoners + guards (randomly allocated to roles)
        prisoners- arrested at home, taken to a real police station to be processed
        taken to 'prison' and given an ID number and prison uniform
        guards- given uniform, sunglasses + night stick
        told to refer to prisoners only by their number
        told not to use physical control but to maintain order in the prison
        study planned for 2 weeks
      - Finding
        pps quickly began to conform to their social roles
        Guards- became more tyrannical (exercising power through cruelty), mistreating prisoners
        Prisoners- allowed the guards to mistreat them
        pps began to forget they were in a study, referring to themselves as 'guard' or 'prisoner'
        5 prisoners released early due toe extreme reactions
        study stopped after 5 days
      - conclusion
        pps conformed to their social roles
        shows how ppl see themselves based on their social roles and conform to the characteristics believed to be associated with that role
        ppl will also justify their behaviour as 'this is how im supposed to behave in the role'
        this means they don't always need to understand/agree with what they are doing
      - AO3
        positives
        control
        pps selected were physically and psychologically healthy and randomly allocated a role- rules out personality differences as an EV and experimenters bias
        control increases internal validity- confidence the results are due to the IV (social roles)
        real life examples
        Abu Ghraib - US military prison for Iraqi POWs
        guards tourtuered and abused prisoners
        Zimbardo agrued that the guards were victims of situational factors and not personal factors responsible for the abuse
        guards had opportunity to bause power associated with the role of 'guard'
        McDermott (2019)-pps acted like the prison was real to them
        90% of prisoners conversations were about prison life
        talked about how it wasn't possible to leave until their 'sentence' was served
        maybe study replicated the social roles of prisoners and guards in a real prison
        high internal validity?
        Negatives
        ethical issues
        deception, lack of informed consent
        protection from harm?
        he followed standford uni ethics guidelines but agreed he should have stopped in sooner
        carried out debreif years later- yet found no long term damage
        lack of realism
        Banuazizi and Movahedi (1975)- argued pps play acting and not conforming to social roles
        pps behaved based on stereotypes of prisoners and guards\suggests that study tells us little about conformity to social roles
        conformity to roles is not automatic
        Zimbardo- when we assume our social role we automatically conform to the expectations of that pole- guards became sadistic when they took on their role
        BUT
        Haslam and Reicher (2012) said that niot all guards did this- some held back abusing the prisoners
        maybe Zimbardo exaggerated the power of roles
- - - - Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS)
        deals with visual info
        inner eye
        the visual cache:stores visual info
        the inner scribe: spatial relationship between objects
      - Phonological loop (PL)
        deals with auditory info
        limited capacity
        divided into:
        the phonological store: inner ear, stores the words you hear
        the Articulatory loop: your sub-vocalised speech )maintenance rehearsal)
        capacity is about 2 seconds
      - Episodic buffer
        added in 2000
        temporary store of info integrates the visual, spatial and auditory info
        puts them into order so it makes sense to us
        then sends to LTM
      - Central executive (CE)
        oversees whole system
        monitors info coming in, directs attention to which slave system needs it to process info
        very limited capacity so cant do too much at same time
  - - - store for knowledge/facts
        knowledge of things
        store for meaning
        not time stamped (don't always know when we first learnt something)
        need to be deliberately recalled (conscious effort needed)
    - - memory for how to do things
        can be recalled without much effort, often carrying out tasks without realising it
        hard to explain to others
    - - memory of events (episodes) in your life
        time stamped- you can remember when it was (recent and long time ago)
        will include other ppl/places in your memory, what happened etc, interwoven to create a single memory
        needs conscious effort to recall the memory as well as what happened
  - - - misleading info
        
        incorrect info given to witness after the event (post event info) could be in form of a question asked by police (leading question) or discussions with other witnesses or just other ppl (post event discussion)
        
        leading questions Loftus and Palmer (1974)
        
        Experiment 1: 45 pps watched clip of car accident, split into 5 groups, asked questions about what they saw
        list of questions had 1 critical question (leading q) about how fast the cars were going
        each group had a dif verb in their critical q
        "how fast were the cars going when they ....... each other?"
        Group 1 - smashed
        Group 2 - collided
        Group 3 - bumped
        Group 4 - hit
        Group 5 - contacted
        recall was affected by the verb
        more damaging the verb, the higher estimated average speed
        leading q did influence pps recall
        leading questions = misleading info
        the verb activated the pps schema of events
        shows that misleading questions can influence EWTs memories
        
        Experiment 2: 150 pps (students0, in 3 groups, watched video of a car acciedent.
        all asked about speed of car
        1 week later eacg pps asked 10 questions about the accident and 1 critical question, "did you see any broken glass?"
        there was no glass in the video
        pps who thought the car was going faster, were more likey to recall broken glass
        results show that leading question can alter EWs memory
        implications for EWs in court
        
        Post event discussion when EWs discuss the evnt with other witnesses/ppl late
        it can cause EWs og memory of even to change
        implications for EWT in court
        EWs should be questioned ASAP after event, separated from each other, discouraged from discussing with others
        
        Gabbert et al (2003) : 120 pps (60 uni students and 60 older ppl from local community) put into pairs. all watched video of a crime (a girl stealing money), each pps watched from a dif perspective each pps saw things that their partner didn't
        both pps then discussed what they each saw before individually completing a questionnaire of the event.
        
        findings: 71% of pps made mistakes in recall and included info from partners perspective
        60% of pps siad they saw the girl stealing money but they had not been shown this in their video
        compared to control group (no partner), 0% got recalls wrong
        suggests EWT can be influenced by post event discussion
        
        Memory conformity: witnesses might have gone along with each other to win social approval or believed their partner was correct and they were wrong
        actual memory is unchanged but what they report is
        
        Memory contamination: when co-witnesses to a crime discuss what they saw, EWT may be altered
        EWs may combine info from eacg others recalls with their own memories = incorrect memory
        causes og memories to change
        can also occur from repeated interviewing by police/courts/lawyers/in court
        
        AO3 positives
        supporting evidence
        lots of research to support
        Braun et al (2002) shows how misleading info can create inaccurate memories
        real world applications
        knowledge is very useful for CJS to help understand that they have to be careful when interviewing witnesses and changed the questions that the police ask
        psychologists often have to appear as expert witnesses to remind jury of the unreliablity of EWTs this helps innocent people from being convicted
        negatives
        EWT in Loftus and Palmers lab experiment has a controlled environment therefore they don't have opportunity to have all their attention focussed on a crime so results may not be fully applicable to EWT in real life
        Foster et al (1994) : if pps thought they were watching a real-life robbery and that their responses might contribute towards identification of suspect, memories were more accurate
        Yuille and Cutshall (1986) : real witnesses to a real armed robbery gave accurate recalls several months after event even tho they had been given 2 misleading questions
        shows that misleading info in real life has less influence then in lab experiments
        maybe lab results are not applicable to real world
        Sutherland and Hayne (2001) central details were accurate but more peripheral details more likelly to be influenced by misleading questions
      - Anxiety
        an emotional state usually accompanied by physiological arousal
        associated with stress
        research into the positive and negative effects of anxiety on EWT
        
        Negative effects
        arousal- physiological changes that prevent us paying attention - recall is worse
        weapon focus- the decreased ability to give an accurate EWT because of attention to a weapon present during that crime
        
        Johnson and scott (1976) : pps sat in waiting room, heard arguement in a room, saw men running through waiting room carrying either
        pen covered in grease (low anxiety condition)
        knife covered in blood (high anxiety condition)
        pps later asked to identify man
        finding:
        mean accuracty for pen condition- 49%
        mean accuracy for knife conition- 33%
        possible that EWs attention focused on weapon (like tunnel vision) so were unable to pay attention to description of man
        weapon is the source of anxiety - EWT increases anxiety
        
        Loftus et al (1987) : tracked eyeball movement of EWs when witnessing a 'crime'
        pps focus drawn to to weapon and from offender's face
        
        Positive effects anxiety improved recall in real life
        
        Chrisrtianson and Hubinette (1993) : questioned 58 real witnesses to bank robbery
        witnesses were either counter staff (high anxiety) or bystanders (low anxiety)
        questioned 4-5 months after robbery
        all witnesses showed at least 75% accuracy
        high anxiety = best recall
        this showed that anxiety doesn't always decrease accuracy
        
        Yuille and Cutshall (1986) : questioned EWs to real life shooting in gun shop
        thief shot dead by shop owner
        13/21 witnesses agreed to take part
        questioned 4-5 months after event
        EWs accounts compared to the ones they gave to police at the time of the shooting
        checked for accuracy
        EWs showed high accuracy even after 5 months
        the more stressed witnesses more accurate than the less stressed ones (88% to 75%)
        
        AO3
        positives
        real-life evidence
        Christianson and Hubinette and Yuille and Cutshall all showed how EWs to real-life crimes have better recall then lab based studies
        useful for the courts
        increases validity of results and theory
        negatives
        field studies lack control
        using real life EWs runs risk of post-event discussion through media, friends and other witnesses
        their recall may be due to EVs instead of actual levels of anxiety
        but too difficult to control this in a real life event
        maybe no valid answer to the effect of anxiety effects on recall as too many EVs
        weapon focus may not be relevant
        Pickel (1998): preposed that it is not weapon focus that affects recall byt surprise
        EWs dont focus on the weapon but are surprised by the weapon meaning they cant recall the event
        study done in a salon where pps watched a thief enter carrying either
        scissors (high threat, low surprise)
        handgun (high threat, high surprise)
        wallet (low threat, low surprise)
        whole raw chicken (low threat, high surprise)
        recall was least accurate for the whole chicken condition then in the handgun condition
        shows that maybe recall decreases in accuracy due to the surprise that the weapon is there rather than the weapon itself
  - - - Proactive Inference (PI)
        old memories interfere with new memories, causing new memories to be forgotten.
        pro= working forwards
        old memories moving forwards to block new memories
      - Retroactive Interference (RI) new memories interfere with old memories, causing old memories to be forgotten
        Retro= working backwards
        new memories moving backwards to block old memories
      - McGeoch and McDonald (1931)
        pps had a list of words to learn and recall later
        had to recall with 100% accuracy
        pps then split into 1 of 6 groups
        given 2nd list to learn- each group given a dif list
        after learning 2nd list, all pps had to recall og list
        
        Group 1- synonyms- words with the same meanings as the words in first list
        Group 2- antonyms- words with opposite meanings as the words in the first list
        Group 3- words unrelated to words in the first list
        Group 4- nansense syllables- made up words with no connection to first list
        Group 5- tree digit numbers
        Group 6- no new list- these pps just rested
        
        Findings recall of og list depended on nature of 2nd list Group 1 produced the worst recall shows forgetting occurs due to similarity
      - AO3
        positives
        evidence from lab studies
        Muller and Pilzecker (1900) support existence of RI
        Underwood (1957) support PI
        lab studies carried out in well controlled conditions, EVs controlled, IV and DV are operationalised
        gives us confidence these results (support interference theory) are valid
        makes interference a more valid explanation for forgetting
        evidence from real-life
        Baddeley and Hitch (1977)
        asked rugby players to recall the names of the teams they had played against so far in the season
        most players had been injured in the season so the last team could have been weeks ago or longer
        results showed that forgetting was not due to how long ago the match was but the number of games theyd played that season
        players recall of their last team played against was better if they'd been injured and not played in between the season games
        shows that interference can be applied to everyday forgetting
        Burke and Skrull (1988)
        showed a series of magazine ads to pps
        pps had to recall details from them
        greatest influence on forgetting was the similarity of ads
        ads for identical produces by different brands hardest to recall (competitive interference)
      - AO3
        negatives
        research is artificial
        lab studies have high control but pps given nonsense syllables, random words or words that have no relevance to them
        not how we remember in real life (remember through meanings)
        more likely to use memory to remember things that are important/ make sense to us
        suggests lab studies have results that dont apply to real life/everyday situations so theory is less useful
        time between learning and recalling is unrealistic to real life
        lab studies give pps a short short time to learnt and recall but real life after learning something we don't have to recall until much later
        results (of interference theory) might be less valid as a result
    - - theory: when memory is formed, associated cues are stored at the same time.
        if similar cues available at time of recall- better recall
        cues absent at time of recall- difficult to recall
        
        Encoding specifically principle (ESP)
        Tulving (1983): if cue is present at time of learning and at time of recall, recall is more likely
        if cues at time of learning and recall are different/absent, info will be forgotten
        2 types of forgetting due to cues:
        context dependant forgetting
        state dependant forgetting
        
        Context dependent forgetting- Environmental cues
        e.g. place, room, weather, music etc
        Abernathy (1940): different groups of students, each taught and tested in various contexts
        Group 1- taught by teacher, tested by teacher in same room
        Group 2- taught by teacher, tested by dif teacher in same room
        Group 3- taught by teacher, tested by teacher in dif room
        Group 4- taught by teacher, tested by dif teacher in dif room
        
        Group 1 performed best in test showing context cues at time of learning being similar to context cues at time of recall allows for more recall
        
        State dependant forgetting- Internal cues
        e.g. emotional and mental state, state of alertness etc
        Goodwin et al (1969): male pps, learnt lists of words either drunk/sober.
        asked to recall 24 hours later, some were drunk, some sober during recall.
        Group 1- learning sober, recalling sober - full/good recall- best
        Group 2- learning sober, recalling drunk - half recall
        Group 3- learning drunk, recalling sober - low/bad recall- worst
        Group 4- learning drunk, recalling drunk - high recall
        state cues act as triggers to help recall
      - Cues- a trigger of info that allows us to access a memory
        such cues may be meaningful or may be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning
        different to decay( memory isn't there anymore)
      - AO3
        positives
        supporting evidence lots of empirical evidence
        lab based studies are well controlled
        replicable and objective
        increases validity of retrieval failure as an explanation for LTM forgetting
        real world applications
        useful foe ppl with memory problems or ppl who need to learn info
        evidence shows cues can increase recall so can techniques to help ppl in real life
        principle also used by police (cog interview) to help witness inprove recall in questioning
        shows explanation has benefits to ppl and noit just theoretical
      - AO3
        negatives
        is context really useful?
        Baddeley (1997): real life effect if context not that strong therefore theory of this may not be needed as other things affect memory
        the explanation may not be good and or fully complete for why we forget
        it is not possible to test ESP so we cant say that this is a valid explanation
        there is no way to tell if this is really being coded and recalled
        not possible to test basis of the explanation
  - - - Report Everything
        witnesses encouraged to include every single detail of the event, without taking anything out even if it seems unimportant
        doesn't matter if EW is unconfident about it
        the more items recalled, the more pathways (cues) will be triggered to retrieve more accurate imfo and more of it
        recall of smaller details will help the recall of mpore important details that they wouldn't have before
        smaller details can be put together to form a clearer picture of the event
      - Changed POV
        EW asked to recall event from someone elses perspective
        aim is to prevent schemas from influencing EWs recall as your svhema of an event might have expectations resulting in biased recall of what they feel is wanted recall from changed POV allows for more details to be recalled as EW has to think of how others would have seen it
      - Context Reinstatement
        witness returns to crime scene in their mind
        recreate both physical and psychological environment of og incident
        told to recall cues such as weather, how thye were feeling, what they were were and doing there
        linked to context- dependent retrieval
        if recreate the same context, recall should be more accurate
      - Reverse Order
        events recall in dif chronological order from og sequence
        this is done because schemas influence the order that we expect things to happen in, reversing prevents this schema and promotes more recall
        also intended to prevent dishonesty as harder to lie if having to change the oder of recall
      - Fisher et al (1989): 16 detectives from Florida all conducted interviews using SI
        7 trained to us the CI, other 9 continued to use the SI
        over 9 months, details of interviews were recodered
        CI detectives: 47% more info from witnesses then before using CI and 63% more info then SI detectives
      - The enhanced CI Fisher et al (1987):
        added some more features to the CI
        interviewer trained to know when to make eye contact and when to look away (avoids leading questions)
        minimising distractions, leaving longer pauses in between questions, tailorring lang to suit the EW
      - AO3 of CI
        positive
        kohnken et al (1999):
        meta- analysis of 53 studies
        increase of 34% more correct info recalled compared to SI
        suggests CI more accurate and useful than SI in helping police with investigations- real world applications
        more beneficial to society
        YET
        pps were all uni students so may not be representative and done in lab conditions which may make this studies results applicable to real world
        negatives
        CI is time consuming and training is required
        some police forces reluctant to use it as it slows down investigations
        Kebbell and Wagstaff (1996): many forces only have officers a few hours training
        suggests that officers not fully trained to use CI properly which explains why not all officers are happy with the result of the CI as they are not being done fully, making them lack effectiveness on recall
        quality vs quantity
        CI intended to increase quantity of info without compromising the quality of info
        but seems to produce the former rather than the latter
        Kohnen ate al (1999): CI had 81% increase correct info but also 61% incorrect info compared to SI
        suggests that police need to treat CI recalls with some caution and doesn't guarantee accuracy
        individual difference seems to work better on older witnesses
        so maybe its not the interview technique yet the age of the EW and that CI may not be useful for all EWs
        inconsistencies in how techniques are used
        not all police forces use all techniques of CI- some on use 2/3 of the techniques listed
        this reduces the validity of the technique as we have no useful data to support the full use of CI in real life
  - - - Capacity- the amount of info that can be stored
        
        Miller (1956): the magic number 7_+2 (5-9 bits of info) without rehearsal (repetition)
        capacity of STM is very limited
        chucking- grouping info together into meaningful groups can help increase capacity
        capcity of LTM potentially unlimited
        
        Capacity AO3
        negatives i
        nconsistent evidence
        Cowan(2001): capacity of STM seems to be at the lower end of the magic number
        Simon (1974): size f the chuck is important some ppl have smaller groups than others in their memory
        Jacobs (1887): capacity varies with age older pps had longer capacities than younger pps
        capacity not consistent for everyone
      - Duration- how long info can be stored without rehearsal
        
        Peterson + Peterson (1959): duration of STM
        pps given 3 random consonants to learn + a 3 digit number then asked to recall after diferent periods of time
        pps had to count backwards in 3s from their 3 digit number
        accuracy of recall decreases as time increases
        duration of STM without rehearsal = 18-30 seconds
        Bahrick et al (1975): duration of LTM
        400 pps (17-74 years ld) tested on names of high school peers (year book)
        tested 15 + 48 years after graduating
        accuracy dropped over time but pps still able to recall some names 48 years later
        duration of LTM coud be up to a lifetime
        
        duration AO3
        postiives
        Bahrick has high validity photos were meaningful Unlike most lab studies) so more applicable to real life
        Shepard et al (1967): recall of meaningless photos showed less successful recall
        shows that Bahricks results gave realistic duration of LTM
        negatives
        Peterson + Petersons stimuli was not realistic
        we dont usually have to learn meaningless info and then recall
        didnt test memory the way it works in real life (construct validity)
        results doesnt tell u much about the duration of STM in real life
      - Coding- the format that info is processed and stored in memory.
        
        How info is coded:
        acoustically- what info sounds like
        iconically- what info looks like
        semantically- what info means
        
        Baddeley (1966) - 4 groups of participants get a list of words to learn and then recall
        
        group 2- acoustically dissimilar
        
        group 3- semantically similar (similar meaning)
        
        group 1- acoustically similar words (sounded the same)
        
        group 4- semantically dissimilar
        
        those who are immediately asked to recall-group 1 words recall was worse
        those asked to recall 20 mins later- group 3 words recalled worse
        conducted that STM codes info acoustically, LTM codes info semantically
        
        coding AO3
        positives
        showed that memory is more than just 1 store because the memory stores are coded differently
        helped developed the MSM later
        negatives
        artifical stimuli- words given to pps had no personal meaning
        everyday memory involves learing and recalling info that is meaningful to us
        we may use different coding in real life
        results have limited application to coding in real world
        is it just as simple as acoustic and semantic-
        research evidence (brandimote et al 1992) suggests STM can also use visual coding and LTM may also use visual (Frost 1972)
        maybe Baddeleys approach was too narrow when testing how each memory store coded info
    - - sonsory store register (SR)
        info from outside world enters SR coding
        -mainly iconic or acoustic- modality specific
        capacity- very large (e.g. over 100 mil cells in each eye)
        duration- less than half a second. so much info t o notice.
        if paid attention to, passes to STM
        no attention- lost (forgotten)
      - STM
        coding- mainly acoustic (Baddeley, 1966), some ionic.
        capacity- 7+_2 (Miller,1956)
        duration- 18-30 seconds (Peterson + Peterson, 1959) without rehearsal.
        rehearsal increases duration but be easily distracted.
        eventually transfers to LTM.
        retrieved from LMT when needed.
        
        decay: memory is a physical connection between neurons
        connection strengthen with use, weaken if not used.
        eventually decays
        displacement: capacity is limited
        new info cant get in (lost) if already full
        old info displaced (lost) to make way for new info
      - LTM
        coding- mainly semantic (Baddeley, 1966)
        capacity- potentially unlimited
        duration- potentially a lifetime (Bahrick et al, 1975)
        decay: use it or lose it
        inferfernce and retrival failure
      - MSM AO3
        positive
        -research evidence
        lots of empirical evidence to support
        studies are lab exp- well controlled and replicable so model can be re-tested to assess accuracy and validity of the theory
        development of scanning tech adds more evidence
        Beardsley (1997)- PFC active during STM but not LTM
        squire et al (1992)- hippocampus active during LTM
        enhances the MSM
        negative
        -too simplistic
        MSM: STM and LTMare single unitary stores (they are just one store each)
        but research suggests this is wrong
        the WMM shows that STM could be multiple sub-stores rather that work differently to the MSMs STM
        evidence for different types of LTM (instead of just the one in the MSM
        procedural, episodic and semantic memory- types of LTM
        questions the accuracy of the MSM as a model
        research evidence may lack construct validity
        lab and random letters/numbers
        no real world application