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Sexual ethics - Coggle Diagram
Sexual ethics
Applied ethics
Applying situation ethics
- Situation ethics is a relativist and teleological theory and tends to be adopted by liberal Protestant Christians
- It is supportive of premarital sex and homosexuality dependent on the context and can in extreme situations support extramarital sex
- Situation ethics according to Fletcher aims to provide a middle ground between religious legalistic attitudes and modern secular antinomianism
- It has one key principle of doing the most loving thing in each situation
- Agape - agape is described as unconditional love for one's neighbour - in terms of premarital sex, Fletcher may draw a distinction between casual and promiscuous sex, and sex within the context of a loving relationship
- Criticism of religious ethics - Fletcher is highly critical of religious theories based on natural law, he believed this was particularly evident in terms of issues such as homosexuality - it is difficult to see how rejection of homosexuality can be the most loving thing to do
- Extramarital sex - although it is harder to justify extramarital sex as the most loving thing, it is not impossible if an extreme situation presents itself eg patriotic prostitution
- People-centred - key to all of Fletcher's thinking are the ideas of relativism and personalism - what is right depends on the situation and what is best for people - people are more important than rules
Situation ethics is a helpful approach to sexual ethics
- Situation ethics is person-centred, which is exactly the right approach for issues around sexuality - it is important that people come before rules in this topic
- Situation ethics is flexible because it avoids cheapening sex or allowing sex to be casual - this avoids the pitfalls of other relativist theories such as utilitarianism, where pleasure becomes more important than the unitive aspects of relationships
- Situation ethics enables decisions to be based on core religious principles yet still be flexible to the changing nature of society, particularly in terms of attitudes to cohabitation and homosexuality
- Situation ethics treats people as adults and gives them the responsibility to make decisions for themselves on how agape is best served - external authorities such as the Church are not required
- There has often been a lack of love and mercy in religious responses to sexual ethics - situation ethics follows the example of Jesus, who refused to condemn the woman caught in adultery
Situation ethics is not a helpful approach to sexual ethics
- Situation ethics overlooks the fact that there may be absolutes in sexual ethics - certainly from a religious perspective, the commandment 'Do not commit adultery' is clear and it is difficult to see how an exception can be made
- In attempting to base its key principle on the ideas of Jesus, situation ethics is guilty of selective interpretation of the Bible - love is not the sole teaching of Jesus, even if it is the most important - Jesus is very clear about issues such as divorce
- It is difficult to know how far to take the idea of love in terms of measuring consequences - should decisions about what is most loving include children who are affected or families who may disapprove of the relationship
- While it may be good to some extent to place decision-making in the hands of the individual, this may prove too demanding for many people, who want to be given more guidance than the theory provides
- There is a sense that the theory arrives at the idea of agape because of difficult cases such as patriotic prostitution - these cases are rare exceptions and it may be unwise to use them to make general rules
Applying Kantian ethics
- Kantian ethics takes an absolutist and deontological approach to sexual ethics
- It seeks to find rules that can be universalised and enable us to treat people with dignity and value
- Kantian ethics focuses on fulfilling one's rational duties - the keys to understanding what our duty is in different situations are the tests for the categorical imperative, particularly the idea of universalising rules and ensuring that people are treated with dignity and respect
- The ideas of freedom and autonomy mean that rational consent is important to Kantian ethics - in addition treating someone as an end entails treating them with dignity, it could be argued that any sexual relationship that is totally driven by lust risks viewing the partner purely as an object
- Homosexuality - while it is true that homosexuality cannot be universalised as the human race would die out, the requirement to treat people as ends suggests that gay people ought to be free to express this aspect of their identity
- Marriage - Kant holds a high view of marriage - it is a contract where people give each other rights so that any sexual relationship that follow does not 'degrade human nature' by treating the other person as an object - this would rule out premarital sex
- Extramarital sex - extramarital sex is ruled out by several considerations: it breaks the promises made in marriage and Kant strongly opposes promise breaking, it treats at least one of the parties as a means to an end and it would be difficult to universalise extramarital sex without making sex meaningless
Kantian ethics is a helpful approach to sexual ethics
- Respect for people is a useful feature of Kantian ethics - ensuring that we treat people as persons and not as objects is a principle that is hard to disagree with
- Kantian ethics achieves the rare combination of giving some clear rules while not relying on religion - the secular nature of Kantian ethics is particularly helpful in an age when people are less religious
- Kantian ethics is based on logic and rational principles - this is important in a topic such as this where emotion can cloud judgement
Kantian ethics is not a helpful approach to sexual ethics
- The principle of universal law is an odd one to apply to sexual ethics - while Kant is right that the human race would die out if everyone only had homosexual sex, he is wrong in that not everyone desires this - it is perfectly possible in a society such as ours, where less than one in ten people will have homosexual relationships
- Kant's optimism about marriage may be misplaced - over 40% of marriages end in divorce and some feminist writers argue that the institution of marriage enslaves women and takes away their freedom
- Kant's rationality is oddly out of place in this topic - arguably emotions and passions are at the heart of this topic and to suggest an ethical system that dismisses these seems to dismiss a key aspect of our humanity
Applying utilitarianism
- Utilitarianism takes a relativist and teleological view of sexual ethics which, with the exception of rule utilitarianism, judges issues of premarital sex, extramarital sex and homosexuality on a case-by-case basis
- Utilitarianism is committed to providing the greatest balance of good over evil that is possible
- Pleasure - Bentham's utilitarianism is straightforward as it is focused on pleasure, provided that the pleasure outweighs the pain, an action is a good action - this makes utilitarianism fairly liberal in its approach, it would seem to permit most cases of premarital sex and would treat homosexual relationships the same as heterosexual ones
- Tolerance - although Mill regards sexual pleasure as a lower pleasure, his harm principle suggests that differing sexual behaviours should be permitted - Mill may, as a rule utilitarian, also be able to allow premarital sex and homosexuality as no one else is harmed - this principle might also provide grounds for opposing extramarital sex
- Consent and preference - Singer's preference utilitarianism argues that respect for the different preferences of people is the most important consideration in determining overall happiness - it is not for us to express a view on the preferences of others unless those choices are directly causing us unhappiness
- Evidence - in aiming to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number, utilitarians are open to possible evidence - reports suggesting that married couples are happier and healthier, and that the children of married parents do better in education would be interesting to a utilitarian - if the evidence stands then they might adjust their views accordingly
Utilitarianism is a helpful approach to sexual ethics
- Utilitarianism is modern and progressive - its views on topics such as homosexuality and cohabitation were ahead of their time and society has now caught up with the utilitarian ideas
- It is a secular theory that recognises that the traditional way of thinking about some topics in sexual ethics is based on religion and needs to be replaced by a way of thinking that does not rely on religious standards
- Utilitarianism is flexible to the situation and has minimal rules - this is significant as it can be argued that sex is mostly a personal and private matter, which requires in Mill's words a 'minimal morality' - yet utilitarianism is not a laissez-faire ethic and it does judge acts where others are harmed as wrong, for example rape or forced prostitution
Utilitarianism is not a helpful approach to sexual ethics
- Bentham's utilitarianism focuses on the pleasure of the majority and has been criticised as a swine ethic - there is no reason why gang rape would count as wrong if Bentham's ethics were applied
- Basing decisions on pleasure is not a solid basis for ethical reasoning - when our passions are involved, it is difficult for us to objectively consider pleasure and pain, and weigh consequences
- Mill recognises that a potential problem of utilitarianism is the 'tyranny of the majority', where minority views of what may constitute pleasure may be suppressed - this could lead to either homophobic laws or the banning of religious criticism of homosexuality, depending on what the majority view may be
- Utilitarianism states that consequences that are often outside our control dictate whether something is right or wrong, this does not make sense - it seems odd to say that the same act, for example of having an affair, is either good or bad depending on whether one's spouse finds out
Applying natural law
- Natural law takes an absolutist approach and tends to form a key part of Catholic ethics
- Natural law typically opposes premarital sex, extramarital sex and homosexuality
- Natural law has at its centre a concern for human flourishing - it holds that certain goods are required for human flourishing - to fulfil our telos or purpose is ultimately what is best for us
- Aquinas' natural law holds that the primary precepts, including reproduction, are key to this human flourishing
- Reproduction - the idea that the telos or purpose of the sexual act, and one of our purposes as human beings is reproduction is central to natural law's rejection of homosexuality
- Marriage - natural law stresses the importance of marriage, it is a secondary precept that can be deduced as it brings order to society - Catholic morality has built upon this to suggest that sexual intercourse belongs only within marriage and that all sexual acts must be open to the possibility of procreation - children need the order and stability that a married relationship brings
- Divine law - natural law also gives importance to the divine law revealed in scripture - 'Do not commit adultery' is one of the Ten Commandments and this would be sufficient to rule out extramarital sex
- Real and apparent goods - although sex may lead to pleasure, the purpose of sex is reproduction - to pursue pleasure through premarital sex, extramarital sex or a homosexual relationship is an apparent good - right reasoning about our telos would lead us to reject these ideas
Natural law is a helpful approach to sexual ethics
- In focusing on marriage and reproduction, natural law avoids cheapening sex, which is a consequence of more liberal modern views
- The focus on telos is helpful provided it is disentangeled from some of the legalistic interpretations that the Church has placed on it - if one of the main purposes of sex is uniting a couple, then this can be a helpful moral principle to consider acts by
- Natural law may be right to link marriage and reproduction - there is statistical evidence that suggests the children of married parents are more likely to flourish in education - it could be argued that a stable environment for raising children is an important contribution that natural law makes to this debate
Natural law is not a helpful approach to sexual ethics
- Natural law is derived from divine law and some of the primary precepts rely on the idea of God - if God does not exist then it can be argued that there is no ultimate reason to follow the precepts on sexuality
- Natural law assumes that people have a telos and that this telos is specifically the things that Aquinas suggests - there are also assumptions about the telos of sexual acts, they are generative and unitive - it could equally be argued that the telos of sex is pleasure
- Natural law argues that these ideas are part of nature and are built in to us, however while sexual urges may be natural, not everyone has heterosexual inclinations, homosexuality is part of some people's nature - similarly natural law commits the naturalistic fallacy in assuming that just because something is natural, it is automatically good
- Natural law's focus on reproduction renders some sexual acts, such as sex between people who are infertile or elderly, as pointless
- Natural law, particularly when interpreted through Church teaching, is legalistic and has not moved with the times, particularly where technology exists to address some of the issues highlighted, such as reproductive technologies
Premarital sex, extramarital sex and homosexuality
Religion and marriage
- In Christian thought, a marriage has the following elements:
- It is a public event where commitment is declared and promises are made
- It is intended for companionship, raising of children and the fulfilment of sexual desire
- It is intended to be a lifelong relationship
- It is a covenant relationship where from that day onwards the two individuals are one in mind and body
- For Catholics, marriage is regarded as one of the sacraments
- Genesis - "That is why a man leaves his father and mother and is united to his wife and they become one flesh"
Issues around premarital sex
- Modern attitudes to premarital sex have been affected by a number of factors:
- Cohabitation - there has been an increase in cohabitating couples, now at least 50% of couples cohabitate - couples may be living together as a 'trial' before marriage, they may be cohabitating as an alternative to marriage or they may be opposed to the idea of marriage
- Contraception - contraception is now available more freely than in previous generations, people can be sexually active with a relatively low risk of pregnancy or STDs
- Secularisation - the idea that sex should not occur outside marriage was largely influenced by religious teaching, these teachings are now less prominent in people's lives - cohabitation is no longer referred to as 'living in sin'
Premarital sex is acceptable
- Quakers say "A couple can be faithful to each other in a loving, non-exploitative relationship outside of marriage"
- Some Protestant churches such as the Church of England allow couples who are committed to marrying to cohabit - living with each other as a trial marriage
Premarital sex is unacceptable
- The purpose of sex according to some Christians is procreation, therefore only married couples should have sex
- Catholics who have premarital sex are excluded from Holy Communion
- The Catholic Church states that trial marriages where there is an intention of later getting married are wrong
- The Church of England states "Marriage provides the proper context for sexual relationships and the bringing of up children"
- The Catholic Church says "The sexual act must take place exclusively within marriage; outside of marriage, it always constitutes a grave sin'
Issues around extramarital sex
- Religious teaching on extramarital sex is very clear - 'Do not commit adultery' is one of the Ten Commandments and Jesus' teaching on divorce in one of the gospels states that divorce is only permissible when adultery has occurred, however a number of issues arise:
- Is extramarital sex still morally wrong if the couple has an agreement to have an open marriage?
- If a person who is in a committed cohabitating relationship has an affair, is this premarital or extramarital sex? Is it as wrong as a married person having an affair?
- Religious teaching on monogamous marriage has gradually evolved - in the Old Testament, Abraham had a concubine as well as a wife, David and Solomon had multiple wives
Religion and homosexuality
- In Leviticus, it commands that men should 'not have sexual relations with a man as one does with a woman'
- The city of Sodom is destroyed by God in Genesis and one of its crimes seems to be homosexual acts between men
- It is a matter of debate and Biblical interpretation as to whether these texts are held to apply to Christians today or reflect the culture and time in which they were written
- For Christians following a natural law ethic, the primary precept of reproduction governs much of their thinking on sexual ethics and would seem to rule out homosexual relationships
Issues around homosexuality
- The distinction between act and inclination - are gay Christians required to be celibate?
- Is gay marriage really a marriage in the spiritual sense and should churches allow, or be forced to hold, gay weddings?
- The adoption of children by gay couples
- The ordination of gay clergy
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