Men had the leading role in society because according to Lenin, workers played the leading and decisive role

Women often depicted as Mothers or children which showed that they were expected to play a maternal role in society

Women depicted as people who needed protection with an example of this being Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya or Tanya who was enslaved, tortured, mutilated and hanged by German Soldier with pictures of he being published in Pravda

Women were much more prevalent in propaganda during this time but were linked with defending the motherland as protecting Soviet Women

heroic women were presented as symbols of sexual equality that was claimed to have been created

Women who served on the front line and Girl warriors (?) were featured heavily in Soviet propoganda

The first women in space Valentina Tereshkova also was a big part of propaganda as she had grown up on collective farm and had been able to get education and work in Soviet Industry

Also official campaigns against women who adopted Western Fashion

Propaganda became far more conservative and got steadily more conservative over the time period

initially emphasise on women being exemplary workers and caring wives and mothers

1970s after a falling birth rate there was a push for women to have children by pushing 'the natural differences' between the sexes and women's 'natural' ability to nurture

Finally by late 1970s women were criticised if they went to work for neglecting their children

Jobs in industry was limited and women were expected to take on nurturing roles like nursing

Female sex work was also widespread during the NEP as it was a way of making money

there was a large amount of women working in industry and by 1940 41% of workers were women

However women were only paid about 60% of what men received and were treated very poorly, being subject to verbal and physical abuse

the amount of places for women in higher and technical education went from 20% to 40%

Women tended to be restricted to production line work in light industry hwich required low level skill and heavy manausl labout

Women were paid less because they were restricted to low skill jobs

Clerical work was also another area of work that was open to women and by the mid 1960s 74% of people in clerical positions were women and half of women worked in industry and the other half in clerical work

90% of the able bodied population who only worked in the home were women

A major recruitment campaign in 1970s for the BAM rail line for construction

Women were recruited because Brezhnev was aware that the male workers would want female company

the Campaign suggested that it was great opportunity to make homes in the North and for liberation through work

Shows the soviet attitude to urban women that they were supposed to be independant and equal but for the benefit of men

Education was widely available to women and so women dominated some professions. By 1985 75% of doctors were women. However the pay scale for these industry was much lower than factory management which was dominated by men

Women also did the worse jobs and very few were tractor divers

There was a campaign to encourage women to join the Virgin Lands scheme to start families and work as milkmaid and gardeners

The campaign was aimed at young women under the age of 25 to entice men to go to the Virgin Lands

Women did the worst jobs on the farms with most working as hay makers and milmaids which were paid 15% of male tractor drivers

Women were also subject to sexual abuse and rape which was common in the Virgin Lands

Women continued to work the lowest paid jobs on the farms and as industry expanded men left to join leaving over 72% of the lowest paid farmers in 1970 as women

Mechanisation also was very slow and did not tend to benefit women as the priority for machinery was given to men

The jobs of women reflected the prejudice that women worked in nurting role and not leadership roles

Women were part of the army in WW2 with 800,000 women serving in combat roles

However the war women were demobilised and denied entry to military academies whereas many men went on to have long military careers

After the revolution women were normally getting jobs in stereotypical jobs e.g commissariat of social welfare and education and health but they did not play a significant role in the Senior Committess

After 1930s they were expected to play a homemaking role and were supposed to dedicated to creating and managing a well ordered communist home

From 1953 their role increase slightly again but was very similar to their role in the 1920s

More women also joined the party but women never made up more than 4% of the central committee

Established education schemes for women in factories and set quotas so women were represented at all levels of education

In reality many of these policies failed or backfired as democracy became a farse and soviet courts had very little authority. An example is postcard divorces where most men used it to divorce their pregnant wives

Much more conservative values were put in place for Stalin in order to increase the USSR's ability to industrialise

Lesbianism treated as a disease with hypnotherapy being employed

incentives for women to have more children with 7 children being 2000 roubles a year for five years

Soviet magazines were women could write in letters about their lives and expose the problems in Soviet Society

Sixth FYP pledged to increase creches childcare facilities and communal laundries

the Seven year plan aimed to stop the double shift by introducing convencine foods and mass produced clothing as well as introduce refrigerators

Ultimately these policies did not really work and did not emlimnate the double shift

Did very little to improve anything and mostly claimed sexual equality had succeeded

In 1918 the people seized the housing of the aristocrats and the middle class. Lenin would formalise this with a decree allowing the soviets to take property and redistribute it

Church property was renationalised and church building turned into housing, stores or civic centres

Under the NEP 89% of house building was undertaken by private companies

Some buildings were built to reflect the new values of the regime

Constructivist Style was the type of the style and they were well designed with creches, collective kitchens and communal and gym

However only a few were ever built and so had limited impact on the soviet citizens

Housing was an acute issue as urban population trebled as peasants fled collectivisation

Entire families would share a single small room and bathrooms and kitchens were shared

The gov did not invest in sewage or communal facilities such as bath houses

People were forced to live in corridors and corners of the kommunalka

Towns were created around large factories like in Magnitogorsk

The factories were often prioritised over the accommodation and so it was poor quality

The accommodation lacked running water or bathrooms and many did not have electric lights

Many lived in barracks style dormitories and 20% lived in the mud huts

1/3 of urban housing was destroyed or damaged during the war

By 1947 the average worker had about 4 square metres of space in a kommunalka and 3 square metres in factory towns

Furniture was extremely scarce with 1 wardrobe for 27 workers and a wash basin for 70 workers

Gov tried to encourage the workers to build their own houses but the process was expensive and long and so the scheme failed

Between 1945 and 1950 4500 farming villages wee built which led to construction and renovation of 919,000 houses, 250,000 agricultural production buildings and 31,000 communal housing

Urban housing doubled between 1950 and 1965 as result of a pus by Khrushchev to expand urban housing

The aparatements included a bathroom, kitchen and at least two bedrooms

Transformed soviet family life but allowed more privacy that worried the authorities

Socialism relied on Industrialisation and that required an educated workforce to understand industry

Other believed that education would allow the students allow them to flourish

Education was traditionally associated with privilege and status and so there were questions as to whether the communists should work with them and continue with a traditional forms of education

Russians tended to be better educated that non - Russians and the urban education was better than rural education

Education was headed up by Lunacharsky and Nadezhda Krupskaya, Lenin's wife

Established unified labour schools to provide free polytechnic educations to all children aged 8 to 17

Secondary schooling was supposed to be vocational and the government proposed the creation of factory schools where young people would learn in factories and be taught in schools

Progressive teaching methods were favoured by Lunacharsky

Ultimately education fell short as there was not enough resources especially during the Civil War

free mandatory education to 16 was not achieved till the 1950s

Traditional Methods continued to use traditional methods as there was no reliable way to train teachers

Fees to be payed for primary and secondary schools for all except the poorest children

Scrapped plans for opening Children's homes linked to schools for the millions of children orphaned by the Civil War

!927 primary schools fees abolished and the majority of children recieved a 4 year education

Under the NEP education was funded locally not by the commissariat for education

Therefore controlling education was difficult and instead of following the education programmer the soviets just took over the schools set up by the Tsarist Regime

Only 40% of working school children started secondary school and only 3% finished which 90% of middle class started and 25% finished

Teachers were mainly trained prior to the revolution and so taught in traditional styles

Urban and rural divides meant that urban children were far more likely to get a good education

Required all illiterate people between the ages of 8 and 50 to learn to read and write a

Allowed the government to conscript literate people into the education system to work

Trotsky believed that literacy was important and so introduced education for all soldiers. By 1921 86% of soldiers could read

Books that contained rhymes that were supposed to teach the alphabet were introduced but only led to an increase in knowledge about letters not literacy

Likpunkty were introduced were people were able to read and take a 6 week intensive course for reading and writing

These were not effective as people aimed to survive not learn to read

Majority of the teachers did not support the regime and advocated for western style democracy

Schools were requisitioned by the army for barracks and stores

initially the literacy campaign was scaled back with 90% of the litpunktys were abolished

By the mid 1920s the campaign continued with an initiative in 1925 to ensure that by 1927 all adults would be literate

However the peasants were far harder to educate and so goal reduced to 1933

The Youth group that was designed to allow the youth a way to express support for the communist party

Wore a uniform and took part in activities such as camping and hiking

Took part in various campaigns such as distributing communist leaflets and in anti-religious campaigns

3 Million volunteers were recruited from Komsomol to educate workers and peasants

The campaign was organised militarily with cultural soldiers, battalions and fighting a cultural war

The campaign took place at the height of Stalin's Collectivisation and so the teachers were associated with the gov and received poorly

They were often attacked with 40% being attacked within the first year

Some were killed and there were rumours that the teachers were there to kidnap children to send to china as slaves

They were poorly equipped with no textbooks or writing materials

The Campaign was quite successful although it had a poor start

During the first 5 year plan 90% of the adults had attended a literacy course

Not wholly successful but approximately 68% of people were literate by the end of the first 5 year plan

The campaign continued throughout the 30s and by 1939 94% of soviet citizens were literate

However societal inequalities were reflected with 97% if men being literate while only 90% of women were literate

Educational culture became obsessed with statistics and targets and so no real focus on the full educational developments of students

Create obedient citizens through patriotism

The reform removed the polytechnic education that had be emphasised previously

Replaced with emphasis on core subjects like reading, writing, maths and science

To provide a foundation of education that allowed the workers to work in factories or farms

Progressive methods were soon abolished in favour of rigid disipline

Teachers were required to ensure that students attended regularly and were punctual

Supposed to train students for life in soviet factories and farms

1935 Examinations were brought in to identify students with good grades for training in management positions

Focused on the achievements of great Russians rather than the history of class struggle

This was a way to make the youth respect Stalin as a great Russian leader and believe in their country

Education began emulating that of the command economy with teachers encouraged to make sure their students achieved good grades such as Leonova

Aim was to ensure that 100% of children between the age of 8 and 12 were in education by 1932, achieved 95%, a significant increase from 60% in 1928

Stalin did not want to put more money in education than was necessary to run the factories and since primary was enough fees on the rest remained

Scholarships offered to higher education by the Party and Trade Unions

The system favoured the children of party officials and was part of Stalin's patronage

Continued to grow in both number of universities and the number of students. Increased by about 800%

Secondary education also expanded to 1.5 million compared to just 216,000 in the last years of the NEP

Schools set up to train 14 - 17 year old men for specialism in industry

Training courses lasted between six months and 2 years. Provided with accommodation and food but no pay

Like conscription with punishments for deserting between a year in prison and 10 years in the gulags

Important during WW2 as it allowed men to avoid conscription and provided workers that were important for the war effort

Supplied skilled labour for economic reconstruction after WW2

Stalin aimed to remove the bourgeois specialists and replace them with red specialists

Decimated by WW2 but was quickly rebuilt with 1.5 million students enrolled by 1953

Attempted to address inequality between the rural and urban education by merging smaller country schools and creating new schools to offer the full ten years of education

Only affected certain areas and the majority of country schools remained small and poorly resourced

invested in teacher training and recruitment leading to an increase of 700,000 teachers between 1953-1964

Establishment of special funds to maintain poor students who attended secondary schools

Those completing secondary schools increased from 20% in 1953 to 75% in 1964

Polytechnic education was re-emphasised in an aim to create workforce for the new light industry

Education became more practical with the humanities and science both reduced in class time while practical training increased

He believed that education meant that students believed that they were too good to work on farms or factories

Restructured education so that their education could be completed through a combination of education in school and vocational training in factories and farms

Most academically gifted children given places in special schools that focused on academic education

' The fundamentals of political knowledge' course created to make all students understand the benefits of the Soviet System

Stalinist discipline was relaxed and a new code of conduct was introduced abolishing the rules about how to sit and stand

Requirement to set homework was dropped and final examinations replaced with constant assessment

Most parents wanted their children to receive an academic education not vocational training, particularly the party members

Slackening of discipline was generally ignored and they continued to teach the correct sitting and standing postures

Most successful was the creation of the special schools and they continued to expand

Aimed to remove all of Khrushchev's reforms as many branded them crackpot schemes

Ended the 11 year schooling policy for return to 8 to 10 year schooling

Drew up a temporary curriculum to restore focus on academic education

Abandoned compulsory secondary education and replaced it with a target of 100% completion of sec education by 1970

Expansion of secondary education slowed with only 60% finish sec ed in 1976 below the 1970 target

Textbooks were now required to be up to date and in late 1970s textbooks were made free

Peasant participation was encouraged by requiring schools to provie free hot meals

There were fears that advanced education would lead to political non-conformity and so more sicence degrees were offered