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Infection and Disease - Coggle Diagram

- - - - You can make antibodies that bind to anything
        
        This makes them really useful because you can use them to target a specific cell or chemical.
  - - - The test will have antibodies, with blue beads on it.
        
        If you're pregnant:
        
        The hormone binds to the antibodies on the blue beads, which will stick to the antibodies on the strip, turning it blue.
  - - - Monoclonal antibodies can be made to bind to these tumour markers and an anti-cancer drug can be attached to the antibodies.
        
        The drug kills cancer cells without harming normal body cells.
- - - - Insect vectors can be killed with insecticide or by destroying their habitat
  - - - Your SKIN acts as a barrier to pathogens. It also secretes ANTIMICROBIAL SUBSTANCES which kill pathogens
      - Hair and mucus in your nose traps pathogens before they can get into your body
      - Your TRACHEA and BRONCHI secrete MUCUS to trap pathogens
        
        They are also lined with CILIA which waft the mucus up to be swallowed
      - Your stomach produces HYDROCHLORIC ACID that kills pathogens
  - - - Antibodies are specific to to the complimentary antigen. They will reproduce rapidly around the body.
      - If a person is sick with the same pathogen, memory cells will activate and the antibodies will reproduce rapidly so the person is effectively immune.
  - - - Then if the live pathogen appears, the white blood cell can rapidly reproduce the antibodies.
    - - Vaccines have helped control lots of communicable disease that used to be common
      - EPIDEMICS can be prevented if a large percentage is vaccinated.
    - - Vaccines don't always work so you can still get the disease.
      - Vaccines can cause bad reaction, although it is very rare
  - - - Only the pathogens non-resistant to the antibiotics will be killed so the resistant pathogen will survive and reproduce so antibiotics will have no affect on that strain.
        
        To stop this, only take what your doctors prescribed and always finish your course.
- - - - Bacteria
        
        Bacteria cells are about 1/100th the size of normal body cells and reproduce rapidly. They release toxins which damage your cells and tissues.
        
        Salmonella
        
        Causes food poisoning and symptoms include: fever stomach cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea.
        
        Toxins causes the symptoms and eating food contaminated is how you get it.
        
        Poultry is given a vaccination to stop the spread.
        
        Gonorrhoea
        
        Gonorrhoea is an STD and is passed by sexual contact.
        
        Symptoms include pain when urinating and a thick green or yellow discharge.
        
        Gonorrhoea can be treated with penicillin but variants are becoming resistant. It can be treated with antibiotics and barrier methods.
      - Virus
        
        Viruses are not cells and and 1/100th the size of a bacteria cell (1/10000 the size of your body cells) and reproduce rapidly. They live inside your cells where they replicate themselves.
        
        Viruses penetrate the cell membrane and use the nucleus and cells' machinery to replicate themselves. The cell will eventually burst releasing the virus.
        
        Measles
        
        It is spread by droplets from an infected person's sneeze or cough.
        
        Infected people will develop a red skin rash and a fever which can then lead to pneumonia or inflammation of the brain. People can also get conjunctivitis and a cough.
        
        Most people are vaccinated against this when they are young. It is caused by paranyoxvirus.
        
        It can be prevented by vaccination and isolation to stop the spread
        
        It is treated with pain relief and your immune system.
        
        HIV
        
        This is a virus spread by sexual contact or exchanging bodily fluids like blood (through needles etc.).
        
        The virus causes flu-like symptoms for a few weeks but would usually have no symptoms for a couple of years.
        
        It can be controlled with antiretroviral drugs that stop the virus replicating in your body.
        
        The virus attacks the immune system
        
        When the immune system is badly damaged it can deal with other infections or cancers. This is known as late stage HIV infection or AIDS.
        
        Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
        
        This is a plant virus.
        
        It causes a mosaic pattern on the leaves of plants and parts of the leaves become discoloured.
        
        The plant can't carry out photosynthesis so it has stunted growth.
      - Protist
        
        Protists are single-celled eukaryotes. Some are parasites which live on or inside other organisms and cause them damage.
        
        Malaria
        
        Malaria is carried by mosquitos when they feed on infected animals.
        
        Malaria causes repeating episodes of fever and can be fatal.
        
        The spread can be stopped by insecticides and mosquito nets and stopping mosquitoes from breeding.
        
        Covering skin is also useful and avoiding areas of standing waters.
        
        Protists is carried and transferred by vectors which don't get the disease itself. An example is an insect carrying the protist.
      - Fungi
        
        Some fungi are single-celled. Others have a body made up of HYPHAE which grow and penetrate human skin and plants. They cause spores.
        
        Rose Black Spot
        
        It causes purple or black spots to develop on leaves of rose plants. The leaves will then turn yellow and drop off.
        
        Photosynthesis is then reduced so the growth of the plant is stunted.
        
        It spreads through water or the wind.
        
        It can be treated with fungicides and by stripping the plant of its affected leaves to be destroyed to stop it spreading.
- - - - Antibacterial chemicals
      - Poisons which deter herbivores.
    - - Waxy cuticle- provides a barrier.
      - Cell walls made from Cellulose which forms another barrier
      - Layer of dead cells-e.g. bark- for a barrier.
    - - Thorns and hairs stop animals form touching them
      - Drooping or curling when touched to prevent them from being eaten.
- - - - Before a drug is tested on humans it is tested on human cells or tissue to make sure it is safe.
        
        It will then be tested on animals and computer models. In the UK the drug must be tested on 2 different live mammals before being tested on humans. These tests are to test for efficacy, toxicity and doses.
        
        Ethical concerns
        
        There are many ethical concerns due to the animal testing because many think it's unnecessary and harmful to the animals. They also argue that animals have different DNA to us so what may be alright for them is harmful for us.
        
        Drugs have to be tested for their: toxicity- is it poisonous/harmful to humans, efficacy- does it do what it is meant to?, dose- how much is needed for the optimum effect?
    - - After the pre-clinical trials, the drug can be tested on humans. First it will be tested on healthy volunteers (usually male in case of fertility issues) in a small dose to test for side effects and efficacy.
        
        Then it will be tested on a small number (100-300) of patients. This will help them figure out the optimum dose.
        
        Then it will be trialled on a larger scale of patients (1000-3000). They will be split into two groups where one will be given a placebo but the patients and doctors don't know which is which (double-blind trial).
        
        Blind/double-blind trials
        
        Blind trials are where the patient will not know whether they are getting the placebo or not. A double-blind trial is where the doctor doesn't know either. This is to stop bias and give a fairer chance.
        
        Placebo
        
        A placebo is given to patients in drug trials to see whether there is an actual affect or not. Placebos will look and seem the same as the drug but have no effect- like a sugar pill. This is to stop bias and the placebo effect where patients think they are getting better just because they have taken something.
        
        Ethical concerns
        
        There are ethical concerns surrounding placebos and blind trials because patients think they are getting treatment but are not which can be very serious when they have life-threatening diseases because patients will not be allowed any other medication, they will not be receiving any help.
    - - The research will then be peer reviewed by other scientists to check their data and make sure nothing is wrong with it.
        
        The drug will be put on the market for others to buy but it will still be monitored in case of any long-term affects.