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Chapter 1, Chapter 3, Endomembrane system, Chapter 6, Chapter 9, Chapter 2…

- - - - unequal reproductive success leads to the evolution of adaptations in populations
- - - - Long term storage
      - Health risk
- - - - Central carbon
      - H atom
      - R group
        
        Distinguish 20 amino acids with specific properties
        
        Hydrophilic
        
        Hydrophobic
      - Carboxyl group
      - Amino group
  - - - Kuro
      - Bovine spongiform encephalophy
      - Chronic wasting disease
      - prion disease
- - - - Sugar
      - Phosphate group
      - Nitrogenous base
        
        DNA
        
        A
        
        T
        
        C
        
        G
        
        Stores information
        
        genes and chromosomes
        
        RNA
        
        A
        
        U
        
        C
        
        G
  - - - Sugar phosphate backbone
- - - - Focuses a beam of electrons through a specimen or onto its surface.
    - - Used to study the details of internal cell structures
    - - Used to study the detail architecture of cell surfaces.
    - - Visible light is passed through a specimen.
  - - - Animals, plants & fungus
        
        Eukaryotic cells have Organelles
        
        Genetic control
        
        Ribsomes
        
        Make protiens from directions of DNA
        
        Nucleus
        
        DNA→ messenger RNA→ protein synthesis
        
        Energy processing
        
        Mitochondria
        
        Cellular respiration in nearly all eukaryotic cells
        
        Releases CO2
        
        1 more item...
        
        Uses O2
        
        Produces ATP
        
        Chloroplast
        
        photosynthesizing organelles of
        plants and algae
        
        Support and movement & communication
        
        Cell wall
        
        Only in plants
        
        Protects and supports
        
        Cellulose
        
        1 more item...
        
        Cytoskeleton
        
        Skeleton of the cell
        
        Functions include
        
        4 more items...
        
        Microfilaments
        
        Tracks for motor protein
        
        Separates chromosomes for cell division
        
        Shape and support the cell
        
        Cilia and Flagella
        
        Microtubules
        
        Support shape
        
        Cytoplasmic streaming
        
        Pseudo Phobia
        
        Muscle cell contraction
        
        Intermediate filaments
        
        Fix organelle position
        
        Permanent framework
        
        Reinforce shape
        
        Plasma membrane
        
        Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
        
        Manufacturing, distribution & breakdown of materials
        
        Lysosomes
        
        Stomach of the cell
        
        Have enzymes that break down, ingested substances and damaged organelles
        
        1 more item...
        
        Golgi Apparatus
        
        Fedex of the cell
        
        Produces and sends out ER products to other organelles or cell surface
        
        Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
        
        Is an extensive network of flattened sacs and tubes
        
        Smooth ER
        
        3 more items...
        
        Rough ER
        
        3 more items...
        
        Volacules
        
        Large vesicles w/ variety of functions
        
        Food vacuoles
        
        Large central vacuoles
        
        Contractile vacuoles
        
        Peroxisomes
        
        metabolic compartments that do
        not originate from the endomembrane system
        
        Extracellular matrix
        
        Binds tissue cells together
        
        Communicates with cytoskeleton
        
        Supports plasma membrane
      - Eukaryotic cells
        
        Nucleus
        
        Nucleolus
        
        largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
        
        Chromatin
        
        Unpacked DNA
    - - Bacteria & Archea
        
        Nucleod
        
        Region where the cells DNA is located
        
        Only in Prokaryotic cells
        
        Cell wall
        
        rigid structure outside the plasma membrane
        
        only in plants
        
        Flagella
        
        Locomotion organelles of some bacteria
  - - - Strong connections between adjacent cells to keep them from pulling apart
    - - water proof
        
        Water can move through the cell but it cant leak
    - - little protien tunnels to send stuff through cells
- - - - chloroplasts grab
  - - - more energy on substrates side
      - less energy on products side
  - - - uses energy from electrons in glucose to make ATP
      - moves around in paired reaction
        
        REDOX reaction
        
        OIL RIG
        
        LEO GER
      - electron of H goes to molecule to reduce
        
        02 ---> H20 is reduction
  - - - electrons transfer NAD+ to NADH
      - oxidized form of NADH
    - - reduced form of NAD+
      - takes to electron transport chain (ETC)
        
        energy from electrons fall from carrier to chain
        
        terminal electron acceptor is o2!!!
        
        like a magnet for electrons
- - - - can make ATP
  - - - can stop ATP if enough/ reaches threshold
- - - - inputs: glucose, 2 ATP
      - outputs: 2 pyruvate
        
        2 (1c) = ethanol
    - - input: 1 glucose, 2 ATP
      - output: 2 pyruvate , 2 lactates
- - - - outside mitochondria
    - - 1 glucose ✔
      - 2 ATP
      - 2 NAD+
    - - 2 pyruvate
      - 4 ATP ✔
      - 2 NADH
    - - substrate has phosphate group and goes directly to product
  - - - location: inter-membrane mitochondrial space
      - Input
        
        2 pyruvate
      - Output
        
        2 Acetyl CoA
        
        2 co2 ✔
        
        2 NADH
    - - same location
      - input
        
        2 Acetyl CoA
      - output
        
        4 co2 ✔
        
        6 NADH
        
        2 FADH2
        
        2 ATP ✔
  - - - o2
      - NADH
      - FADH
    - - ATP
      - H20
  - - - spinning the inner mitochondrial membrane
      - allow h+ to flow freely across membrane
      - decouples H+ flows from ATP synthase
- - - - reproductive cells are not composed from somatic (body cells)
      - changes in somatic cels do not influence gametes
      - some traits that disappear in first generation can reappear in later generations (ex. tanning beds wont make babies tan)
  - - - dihybrid cross
        
        mendels law of independent assortment
        
        alleles of a pair each separate individually from each chromosome
      - FOIL to solve bigger punnet squares
    - - take unknown dominant individual (AA or Aa) and have offspring with
        
        homozygous recessive individual (ALWAYS)
        
        if dominant, all will be dominant genes
  - - - gregor mendel & peas
        
        traits (alleles)
        
        characters (genes)
        
        true breeding
        
        hybrids
        
        genetic cross
  - - - 2 identical is homogylous
      - 2 different is heterozygous
    - - law of segregation
  - - - polydactyly (more toes/fingers)
      - achondroplasia (form of dwarfism)
      - huntingtons
      - hyper cholestreomelia
    - - sickle-cell anemia
      - albinism
- - - - incomplete dominance
        
        heterozygote individual is in-between 2 parents
        
        meshing
        
        purple flower + white flower = pink
      - codominance
        
        ABO blood types
        
        AB blood type is codominant
        
        both A & B
      - pleiotropy inheritence
        
        1 gene = many phenotypes
        
        sickle- cell
        
        1 gene = many problems
      - polygenic inheritence
        
        many genes = 1 genotype
        
        skin color
        
        many genes = 1 genotype
- - - - when 2 genes are close together, gene becomes inherited together
      - not split up
      - 1 letter
  - - - seperation of linked genes by crossing over
  - - - ordered list of genetic loci along chromosome
    - - crossing over percentages
      - uses recombination frequencies
- - - - ex. color blindness
    - - recessive alleles
- - - - Shared bonds
      - STRONGEST BOND bc in water
      - nonpolar
        
        = electron share
      - polar
        
        electron pulled to the electronegative atom (O, N)
    - - opposite charges
      - transfer of electrons
        
        creates ions
    - - weak but vital
      - between compounds
      - attach and detach easily
- - - - sticking to same things
        
        water to water = cohesion
      - Adhesion
        
        sticks to different type
        
        water to human = adhesion
    - - kinetic energy
        
        energy of motion
      - thermal energy
        
        transfer = heat
        
        faster = more
        
        slower = less
      - temperature
        
        water absorbs heat before temp increases
        
        Hydrogen bonds
        
        evaporative cooling
        
        water w/ most kinetic energy leaves
        
        sweating
    - - water becomes solid
        
        becomes less dense
        
        b/c hydrogen bonds
        
        h-bonds makes ice less dense than liquid water
    - - Solute + Solvent = Solution
      - water is polar
        
        dissolves ionic compounds
      - Water is center of life
        
        if water on other planets, there is life
    - - PH Scale
        
        Acid
        
        higher H+ in solution
        
        H+ > OH-
        
        Base
        
        higher OH- / less H+ in solution
        
        OH- > H+
        
        water pH 7
        
        buffer
        
        minimizes changes in pH
        
        usually weak acid + weak base
      - small % of H2O molecules break into ions
        
        Hydroxide ion (OH-)
        
        Hydronium ion (H3O+)
        
        Hydrogen ion (+)
  - - - main product of fossil fuel combustion
      - increasing in atmosphere
      - linked to global climate change
      - 25% of human-generated CO2 is absorbed by oceans
        
        ocean acidification
        
        problem for coral reef relying on carbonate acid
        
        calcium and carbonate decreases so coral reef dissolves
- - - - homeostasis for human lfie
  - - - Determine the element
      - in nucleus
    - - Determine the isotope
        
        becomes radioactive/unstable if too much neutrons
    - - ions
- - - - Is used to describe the movement of water in the cell
        
        Hypertonic
        
        A lot of solute outside the cell
        
        Plant cells
        
        Plasmolyzed (shrivield)
        
        Membrane broke open
        
        Hypotonic
        
        Outside the cell has low solute
        
        Plant cells
        
        Turgid (normal)
        
        Isotonic
        
        cell is not gaining or losing water, cell is at equilibrium
        
        Plant cells
        
        Flaccid
      - Osmosis
        
        water + selectively permeable membrane
        
        if membrane is not permeable to solute water moves
    - - Fluid mosaic model
        
        Fluid phospholipid bilayer
        
        Mosaic of diverse proteins
      - Enzymes
        
        Protein catalysts
        
        Do NOT get used up by reactions
        
        Activation energy
        
        energy used to make something happen
        
        Inhibitors
        
        Non competitive
        
        Change the shape of enzyme so it doesn't fit the substrate
        
        Competitive
        
        Compete with substrate for active site
        
        ways to turn off enzyme
        
        Feedback inhibition
        
        helps regulate metabolism
    - - 1st law of thermodynamics
        
        Energy can change but cannot be created or destroyed
      - 2nd law of thermodynamics
        
        As energy is transferred or transformed, more and more of it is wasted
    - - kinetic energy
        
        Is the moving of an object
        
        thermal energy
      - Potential energy
        
        position and structure
        
        Chemical energy
      - Exergonic reactions
        
        Release energy
        
        Exer = exit
        
        Hydrolysis reactions
      - Endogonic reactions
        
        add energy
        
        Endo = add
        
        Dehydration reactions
      - Stubstate
        
        reactions with enzyme
      - Active site
        
        The place where the enzyme interacts with substrate
      - Induced fit
        
        The change in shape after the enzyme interacts with the substrate
    - - Passive transport
        
        no energy needed
        
        high solute to low
      - Active transport
        
        costs the cell energy (ATP)
        
        Moves solute against concentration gradient
      - Bulk transportation (vesicle based)
        
        Exocytosis
        
        Ex = Exit
        
        Endocytosis
        
        En = In
        
        Phagocytosis
        
        Cellular eating (Bulky things)
        
        Receptor mediated endocytosis
        
        Usually trying to concentrate for smaller things
    - - tendency of particles to spread out evenly in an available space
      - facilitated diffusion
        
        Hydrophobic, substances diffuse across
        
        Hydrophilic substances do not
        
        Diffusion with transportation
    - - Every chemical reaction happening
      - Metabolic pathways
        
        Clusters of metabolism, little reactions
      - Anabolic
        
        Building together
      - Catabolic
        
        Breaking down smaller
  - - - Photo synthesis fuels the biosphere
        
        Autotrophs
        
        Make their own food
        
        Heterotrophs
        
        Get food from outside sources
      - Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plant cells
        
        Leaf
        
        Mesophyll
        
        Gets into cell through diffusion
        
        Stomata
        
        Allow air inside and outside the leaf
        
        Chloroplasts
        
        Stroma
        
        Fluid inside chloroplasts
        
        Thylakoiod
        
        Looks like a disc made of a membrane
        
        Grana
        
        Stack of thylakoid
        
        Chlorophyll
      - Scientist traced the processes of photosynthesis using isotopes
      - Photosynthesis is a redox process, as is cellular respiration
        
        Photosynthesis: H20 is oxidized and CO2 is reduced
        
        Cellular respiration: Glucose is oxidized and H2O is reduced
      - Photo synthesis occurs in two stages which are linked by ATP and NADPH
        
        Light reactions
        
        Thylakoids
        
        Make ATP + NADPH
        
        Calvin Cycle
        
        Stroma
        
        Carbon fixation
    - - Visible radiation absorbed by pigment's drives light energy
        
        Wavelength
        
        Photon
        
        Particles moving along the waves
        
        Pigments
        
        Molecules that absorb light energy and then release it
        
        Red, Blue, Green
        
        White is all the colors
        
        Light is being all absorbed
        
        Black is none of the colors
        
        All the light is being reflected
      - Photosystems capture solar energy
        
        Photosystems
        
        Reaction-center complex
        
        Light-harvesting energy
      - The light reaction take place within the thylakoid membranes
        
        Photosystem 2
        
        Light energy enters
        
        Hands off electrons then release it
        
        Electron Transport chain
        
        Photosystem 1
      - Calvin Cycle: Reducing CO2 to Sugar
        
        Carbon fixation
        
        CO2 enters with Rubisco
        
        Taking CO2 and making it into an organic molecule
        
        ATP
        
        NADPH
        
        Reduction
        
        Gaining electrons
        
        Makes G3P
        
        Take out a few G3P for glucose compound
        
        Release of G3P
        
        Lose 2 G3P to make one glucose
        
        Regeneration of G3P
        
        Photorespiration
        
        When the plant is too hot the stomata closes
        
        O2 rises while CO2 decreases
        
        Uses Carbon from compounds
        
        Causes toxins
        
        CAM Plants
        
        Temporal separation with crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to fix carbon
        
        Least efficent
        
        Least H2O
    - - Rising atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide may affect plants in various ways
        
        Rising CO2 levels using laboratory growth chambers and field studies
        
        Long term field projects
      - Reducing both fossil fuel use and deforestation may moderate climate change
        
        Greenhouse effect
        
        Replace fossil fuels with biofuels
  - - - Cell division
        
        Asexual Reproduction
        
        doesn't need anyone else
        
        copies of each other
        
        ex. yeast
        
        Sexual Reproduction
        
        2 individuals blend DNA into offspring
        
        no genetic identically
      - Binary Fusion
        
        As the cell replicates its single chromosome
        
        the copies move apart
        
        the plasm membrane pinches inward
        
        more cell is made, which eventually devides the parent cell into 2 daughter cells
    - - growth and repair process
      - cell cycle
        
        life cycle of a cell
        
        ordered sequence of events
        
        Mitotic phase
        
        mitosis
        
        focuses on dna
        
        cytokinesis
        
        cell splits into 2 cells
        
        chromatin --> chromosome
        
        interphase
        
        mitotic spindle
        
        use microtubleles
        
        sets up where new cells will form
      - definitions
        
        centersome
        
        where spindles come out of
      - Mitosis
        
        Prophase
        
        cell takes DNA From chromatids to make chromosomes
        
        fuzzy to defined (packed up)
        
        Pro-meta phase
        
        break up membrane around nucleus
        
        sets up spindles
        
        Metaphase
        
        lines up in middle
        
        grabs other spindles
        
        stuck in middle
        
        Anaphase
        
        chromosomes pull away
        
        spindle reels in and splits centromere
        
        2 chromosomes, each have own centromere
        
        Telophase
        
        puts everything back in 2 cells
        
        2 nucleotides
        
        unwires spindles
        
        Cytokinesis
        
        divides everything else into cells
        
        makes the 2 separate cells
      - Rate of cell division is affected by environmental factors
        
        nutrition
        
        no food=no cells
        
        growth factor
        
        outside of cell, signals to stop or keep dividing cells
        
        density-dependent
        
        healthy cells don't divide if max amount of cells
        
        anchoring dependent
        
        only divide if attached, have to stick
      - Cancer
        
        uncontrolled cell division
        
        tumor
        
        too many cells
        
        binine tumor
        
        if removed, doesn't come back
        
        malignant
        
        cells in tumors spread and grow more tumors
        
        metastasis
        
        have already spread
        
        treatments
        
        radiation- targeted to specific cells
        
        chemotherapy- entire body stops every cell from dividing
    - - Somatic cells
        
        cells that dont reproduce
        
        homologous chromosomes
        
        similar chromosomes from 2 parents
        
        Locus
        
        physical place where finds gene
        
        Allels
        
        different versions of gene
        
        homgogulus
        
        are not identical
        
        2 diploids 2n=46
        
        gametes
        
        1 haploid
      - Meiosis
        
        Prophase 1
        
        crossing over
        
        chromosome condenses
        
        Metaphase 1
        
        independant assortment
        
        genes lining up
        
        Anaphase 1
        
        homogenous chromosomes split up
        
        Telophase 1
        
        seperate into 2 cells
        
        cytokinesis splits
        
        cleavage furrow
        
        Prophase 2
        
        Metaphase 2
        
        Anaphase 2
        
        Telophase 2
        
        meiosis interphase
        
        G1
        
        growing
        
        S
        
        DNA synthisis/ duplicating genes
        
        G2
        
        checking
    - - nondisjunction
        
        process of dividing cells going wrong
      - karyotype
        
        how we test for issues
        
        white blood cells
        
        isolates to stimulate to grow, arrest at metaphase, then photographed under microscope
        
        rearrange chromosomes into pairs
      - Trisomy 21
        
        down syndrome
        
        3 copies of chromosome #21
      - males XY, females XX
      - Nondisjunction of sex chromosomes
        
        missing/extra XY chromosome
        
        XXY- klinfelter syndrome (male)
        
        feminization
        
        sterile
        
        XO- turner syndrome (female)
        
        1 sex chromosome
        
        web of skin
        
        sterile
        
        need hormone therapy
        
        Polypeptide organisms
        
        more copies of all chromosomes
        
        ex. strawberries 8n=56
      - alterations to a chromosomes structure
        
        Deletion
        
        loses chunk of DNA
        
        Duplication
        
        Copies of DNA twice
        
        Inversion
        
        Flips segment of DNA
        
        Translocation
        
        Crossing over between nonhomolgoulous chromosome
  - - - Virus
        
        Capsid + nucleic acids
        
        Proteins
        
        Sometimes membrane enveloped
        
        Emerging viruses
        
        HIV
        
        human immunodeficiency virus
        
        AIDS
        
        acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
        
        Retrovirus
        
        Reverse transcription
        
        reverse transcriptase
      - Lytic cycle
        
        The phage injects its DNA
        
        The phage DNA circularizes
        
        New phage DNA and proteins are synthesized
        
        The cell lyses, releasing phages
        
        Virus breaks hosts cell open
      - Lysogenic cycle
        
        Phage DNA inserts into the bacterial chromosome
        
        The lysogenic bacterium replicates normally, copying the prophage at each cell division
        
        many cell divisions
        
        If environmental stress;
        
        Infect host cell & inserts itself into hosts cell
      - Prions
        
        Infectious proteins
        
        Kuru
        
        chronic wasting disease
        
        mad cows disease
      - Bacteria use 3 mechanisms to move genes from cell to cell
        
        Transformation
        
        Transduction
        
        Conjugation
        
        Mating bridge between donor cell and recipient cell
        
        use of phage
        
        DNA enters cell
        
        F factor (for fertility )
        
        Gene on chromosome or plasmid
        
        use of plasmids
        
        R plasmid
        
        Antibiotic resistance
    - - Triplet code
        
        A sequence of 3 nucleotides that determines one amino acid
        
        Interpretation
        
        Codon
        
        3 letter genetic sequence found in both DNA & RNA
      - Most living things will interpret the same genetic code
      - RNA polymerase
        
        Promoter & terminator
        
        Elongation
        
        Building
        
        Initiation
        
        Enzyme finds and starts
        
        Termination
        
        Stop
        
        Transcription: trying to build RNA; so we use RNA polymerase
        
        In a prokaryotic cell after translation the RNA transcript ic called mRNA
      - Messanger RNA (mRNA)
        
        RNA Splicing
        
        Introns
        
        In the way
        
        Get rid of
        
        Exons
        
        Expressed (needed)
        
        Add cap n tail
        
        To get out of nucleus
        
        Protection from enzymes
        
        splicing
      - Translation
        
        In the cytoplasm (need ribosomes)
        
        Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) + Protein
        
        Binding site for tRNA and mRNA
        
        Arrive site
        
        Polypeptide site
        
        transfer RNA (tRNA)
        
        Anticodon on one end
        
        tri-nucleotide sequence located at one end of a transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule
        
        Specific amino acid attachment site at end
        
        Initiation
        
        mRNA + SSU + initiator + RNA (start)
        
        LSU & initiator tRNA - P site
        
        Elongation
        
        Condon recognition
        
        peptide bond
        
        Translocation (moves over)
        
        Termination
        
        Stop codon
    - - new strand always grows 5' - 3'
        
        Lagging side
        
        Has Okazaki fragments since DNA grows weirdly
        
        Leading side
        
        has no Okazaki fragments
      - Enzymes
        
        DNA helicase
        
        Open DNA
        
        Topoisomerase
        
        Keeps DNA from tightening
        
        SSB's (single strand binding proteins)
        
        Holds DNA open
        
        Ligase
        
        glues adjacent sugar phosphate bones
        
        uses ligase
        
        Primase
        
        Builds DNA polymer
      - Okazaki fragments
        
        short length of DNA produce by lagging side
      - DNA replications begins at the bubble
      - Mutagens
        
        generate mutations
        
        Mutations are changes in DNA
        
        Radiation
        
        Chemicals
        
        Infectious agents
        
        missense mutations
        
        Results in an amino acid substitution
        
        Silent mutations
        
        Has no effect on the protein sequence
        
        Insertion/deletion
        
        amino acid is added or deleted
      - Gene expression
        
        Connects genotype and phenotype
        
        Genotype
        
        What DNA is saying
        
        Phenotype
        
        What DNA is showing
      - DNA replication = DNA polymerase
    - - Nucleic acids
        
        4
      - Proteins
        
        20 AA's
      - Fredrick Griffith 1928
        
        Streptococcus pneumonia
        
        Genetic information is part if a cell and can be moved around
      - Alfred Hershey & Martha Chase
        
        Bacterial phages/ phages
        
        Virus is a genetic material packed up with proteins
        
        1) A phage attaches itself to a bacterial cell
        
        2) The phage injects its DNA into the bacterium
        
        3) The phage DNA directs the host cell to make more phage DNA and proteins; new phages assemble.
        
        4) The cell lyses and releases the new phages.
        
        Steps they used to figure out Bacterial pahges
        
        Label proteins with radioactive isotopes tells us that proteins doesn't get in the cell.
        
        Radioactive DNA viruses: The genetic material that gets in the cell and nucleic acids.
        
        Radioactive proteins stay outside of cell; radioactive DNA get inside cell.
        
        DNA stored information
      - RNA & DNA polymers
        
        Macromoloecule
        
        Monomers
        
        Nucleotides
        
        Joined together by covenant bonds
        
        Sugarphosphate backbone
        
        Polymers
        
        Polynucleotides
        
        2 types
        
        DNA
        
        3 more items...
        
        RNA
        
        2 more items...
        
        nucleic acids
      - Watson, Chick, Wilkins & Rosalind Franklin
        
        Watson, Crick & Wilkins stole Rosalinds model of DNA and published it as their own .
- - - - One or more genes transfered
- - - - Identify targets
  - - - Solve crimes
      - Establish paternity
      - Identify victims
- - - - Manipulating an organism to be useful
        
        DNA technology
        
        GMOs
        
        Clean up toxic waste
        
        Kills pests in plants
        
        Insulin
        
        Dissolves blood clots
        
        Recombinant DNA
    - - Plamids are backup DNA
      - Vector is a way of delivering
  - - - insertion/deletion of genes
  - - - cDNAs technique to get all the splicing done in DNA form
- - - - All proteins together
- - - - cluster of genes that are transcribed together to give a single messenger RNA
      - Active operon
        
        DNA, mRNA, Protein
        
        Lactose
        
        Inactive repressor
        
        RNA polymerase is bound to the promotor
        
        Translation
        
        Enzymes for lactose utilization
        
        Lactose inactivates the repressor
      - Inactive operon
        
        DNA, mRNA, Protein
        
        regulatory gene
        
        active repressor
        
        promoter
        
        operator
        
        Lactose utilization genes
        
        lactose is absent
    - - to stop being used
    - - Proteins that control translation
    - - Make a protein but it doesn't function until you remove something
      - ~1.5% of human genome codes for proteins (making mRNA)
  - - - environment is affecting how they use their DNA
    - - Packed up DNA = no expression
        
        X chromosome inactivation
        
        Barr body (completely random)
        
        (tightly packed )
        
        In female cells one of the X chromosomes are inactive and they make a barr body
  - - - By keeping different sets of exons, it makes different proteins
  - - - ~ 22 nucleotides long
    - - RNA interference of translation
      - Formation of centromere
      - Methlaytion for genome formation
        
        turning off genes to wipe slate clean
- - - - Cells that can make all cells that are needed
      - Plants have more than humans
    - - Reprogram skin cells so the become induced pluripotent stem (IPS) cells
        
        Treat IPS cells so that they differentiate into specific cell type.
        
        Return cells to patient, where they can repair damaged tissue.
  - - - egg cell (haploid)
      - Donor cell
  - - - Embryonic stem cells
      - Adult stem cells (pluripotent)
- - - - Oncogene
        
        Mutated gene that has the potential to cause cancer
      - For a protein that stimulates cell division
    - - suppresses tumors
      - tumor suppressing gene is inactive
      - when it fails it causes tumors