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Problem-solving (Y1) - Coggle Diagram
Problem-solving (Y1)
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What is problem solving?
Purposeful, goal-directed action -
- There is a starting state -> problem solving process -> goal state
- Needed when we do not know how to get from starting state to goal state
- There is only a problem in the absence of an immediate solution
Stages of problem solving -
- initial state
- interpret and frame the problem (problem representation) -> generation leads back to interpretation through restructuring of the problem
- Generate possible solutions (select operators) - reach an impasse
-> impasses are solved by incubation or restructuring - perceive it differently or go away and come back to it
-> Incubation occurs after a solution is tested and then reassessed
- Test solutions
- Find solutions
-> generation of solution gives insight, and insight allows us to skip testing to final solution
- Goal state
Information processing theory - problem spaces
Gestalt theory - incubation, restructuring and insight in trial and error
Types of problem -
- Well-defined problems - there is a clear initial and goal state and simple solution to reach it, through knowing rules and operators
- Ill-defined problems - problems where this is unclear
- Knowledge lean problems - do not require any expertise or prior knowledge to find a solution outside what is presented in the problem
- Knowledge rich problems - do require expertise to understand goal states and operators
Cognitive biases
Past experience in decision making - systematic errors in cognitive process that lead to applied bases of heuristics
- Confirmation bias - Nickerson (1998) - tendency to focus on information that supports your opinion
- Sunk cost effect (Arkes and Blumer, 1985) - continue a behaviour because of previous investment when no longer sensible to do so
- Disposition effect (Shefrin and Statman, 1985) - sell shares that have gone up, keep shares that have gone down
- Cognitive bias occurs when there is not enough meaning, too much information and a need to act fast
Past experiences -
Helpful -
- Consider the Law of Effect, Thorndike, 1905
- The problem space has been successful previously and so it is strengthened and stored for later recall
- Expertise
- Heuristics
Not helpful -
- Cognitive bias of transfer, set effects and functional fixedness
- Cognitive analogical transfer - applying what you know theoretically to novel practical situations e.g. knowledge about the ocean on a desert island
- Set effects - mechanisation of thought (Einstellung) and Luchins' Water Jug Problem
- Functional fixedness - set functions for objects (Duncker, 1945 - candle wall problem)
-> Carmada et al, 2018 - EEG study - clear behavioural and neural differences between primed and control groups
-> Children show less functional fixedness - German and Defeyter (2000)
Making analogies to solve problems -
- Transfer of problem solving strategies and solutions from one situation to a similar one is called analogical problem solving - key factor of making analogies in creativity and problem solving
- People struggle to make spontaneous analogies
- Two problems must be perceived as similar in order to make a successful map between them (Perfetto et al, 1983)
- Even trying to unsuccessfully solve a problem produces greater spontaneous transfer the rote learning of the problem and its solution (Needham and Begg, 1991)
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Summary
Gestaltism -
- Insight - a sudden moment of clarity, the movement from not knowing the solution to knowing it
- Restructuring - viewing the problem from a different perspective and this can lead to insight
- Incubation - subconsciously working on a task after hitting an impasse - we walk away, and return when we learn new solutions
Information processing -
- Problem spaces - we construct a mental model (the problem space), which follows certain rules - initial state and end state; constraints and operators
-> We solve problems by navigating through this space
- Heuristics - mental shortcuts that we automatically apply to focus on salient information and save mental fatigue
- Past experience - can help when we apply rational heuristics or learned behaviour (expertise) - can hinder when we cannot look past cognitive bias