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Theory and Methods - perspectives - flashcards done - Coggle Diagram
Theory and Methods - perspectives - flashcards done
functionalists - consensus/structural x
consensus
all members agree on how society should be organised and share common norms, values and beliefs
Durkheim
originated in his works
interested in how social order is possible or how society remains relatively stable
interprets each part of society in terms of
how it contributes to the stability
of the whole society. Society is more than the sum of its parts; rather,
each part of a society is functional for the stability of the whole society
the different parts are
primarily the institutions of society
, each of which is organised to
fill different needs
and each of which has particular consequences from the some and shape of society
the parts
all depend on each other
E.G.
the family is dependent upon the school to help children grow up to have god jobs so that they can raise and support their own families
in the process, the children become law-abiding, tax-paying citizens, who in turn support the state
if all goes well, the parts of society
produce order, stability and productivity
Parsons x
Central question - 'how is social order possible'? How are individuals able to co-operate harmoniously
social order is achieved through a central value system or shared culture; a set of norms and values, beliefs and goals shared by members of society -
VALUE CONSENSUS
- the glue that holds society together
parts of the social system
norms
- at the bottom go the system, specific norms or rules govern individuals' actions
status roles
- are clusters or sets of norms that tell us how the occupant of a status (social position) must act - e.g., doctors should not kill patients
institutions
- are clusters of status roles e.g. the family is an institution made up of the related roles of mother, father, child,...
sub-systems
- are groups of related institution. For example, shops, farms, factories and banks form part of the economic sub-system
the social system
- these sub-systems together make up the social system as a whole
However needs prerequisites on what to do
GAIL system prerequisites
Goal Attainment
the
political
function
societies' must develop ways of
making decisions
human societies vary from dictatorship to democracies
Adaptation
the
economic
function
every society has to provide an
adequate standard of life
for the survival of its members
human societies vary from hunters and gatherers to complex industrial societies
material needs are met by the economic sub system
Integration
social harmony
function
each institution in society developed in response to particular functions. There is no guarantee that the different institutions will not develop elements that conflict
therefore specialist institutions are developed to limit the potential conflict
these could include religion, nations of charity and voluntary organisations
without integration, some social agents will turn to deviance
- pick up a hammer and smash up things
Latency
identity
function
deals with
individuals rather than structure,
and focuses on how they cope.
pattern maintenance
socialising individuals to go on performing the roles that society requires
tension management
to help people recover after a day at work/school etc
helps remove the destabilising factors of daily life
maintaining value consensus and social order
formal social control
official groups who enforce societies laws, such as CJS and the Police
informal social control
other social groups such as family and peers who keep us in line through punishment and ostracization
Durkheim x
people are selfish, and society will fall into chaos unless there were common values
social institutions therefore
socialise people into value consensus
making behaviour
predicable and stable,
allowing cooperation
this
binds
society together and
regulates
individual behaviour
the systems of integrating individuals into society helps to ensure that individuals conform due to
socialisation and social control
Social change and evolution x
change occurs in society when new functions emerge - society adapts
this is a
slow evolutionary process
- society become gradually more complex with more specialised institutions
Parsons x
structural differentiation
this is the gradual process in which
separate, functionally specialised institutions take over
from ones which are no longer required
dynamic equilibrium
as a change occurs in one part of the system it produces
compensatory changes
in other parts
different types of society and social change
traditional
status is
ascribed
at birth
diffuse relationships
- usually with kin to satisfy a large range of general needs
particularism
- people may receive special treatment because they are a member of a particular group
affectivity
- people aim to satisfy their needs immediately
collective organisation
- people put the needs of the group first
modern
status is
earned or achieved
through hard work
specific contractual relationships
with individuals to meet a
specific need
universality
- everybody is treated in the same way
affective neutrality
- people defer or postpone their need for gratification
self-orientation
- people selfishly put their own needs before the group to which they belong
Evaluation x
Internal criticism x
Merton x
indispensability
Merton
argues this is an
untested assumption
and he points to the possibility of
functional alternatives.
For example,
Persons
assumes that
primary socialisation
is best performed by the nuclear family, but
one-parent families or multi-generational families
may do this just as well
Parsons
assumes that everything in society - the family, religion, etc - is functionally indispensable in its existing form
Functional unity
Persons
assumes that all parts of society are tightly integrated into a single whole or 'unity' and that each part if functional for all the rest. He also argues that if one part changes, it will have a
knock-on effect
for the others
However, Merton
argues that some parts of society may be
relatively independent from others
- maybe society won't collapse if the nuclear family disappeared altogether
Universal functionalism
Persons
seems to assume that everything in society performs
positive functions
for society as a whole.
However, Merton
argues that some aspects of society may be dysfunctional for certain groups -
RELATES TO CONFLICT PERSPECTIVES
a
manifest function
is the intended function of a social institution - the rain dance performed by the Hopi Indians with the intention of making it rain
a
latent function
is the unintended function of a social institution - the rain dance by the Hopi Indians helps to maintain social solidarity
External Criticism x
logical criticism x
the theory is teleological
- a thing exists because of its functions or effect
contradictory
- how can something be both functional and dysfunctional
unscientific
- impossible to falsify or verify the theory
conflict perspective x
unable to explain conflict and change in society
it is a conservatives ideology that tries to maintain the status quoe
legitimises the position of the powerful
Marxists x
persons
was an
idealists who neglected the importance of material interests
consensus society is not accurate to reality - stability needs to be maintained by an external factor as most societies do not have value consensus
Gouldner x
parsons
never asks whose ends and values people pursue - own ideas or those imposed by someone else
Feminists x
ignore the position of women in society and consigns them to the traditional roles such as being the housewife and the mother
therefore supportive of the 'status quo', which is a patriarchal society according to feminists
social action perspective x
wrong
- functionalism is deterministic
functionalism
reifies society
- treating it as a distinct 'thing'
postmodern perspective x
unable to explain diversity and instability in society
functionalism is outdated due to being a meta-narrative
Interactionalists x
Parsons
has an over deterministic view of human nature, making people seem like
puppets
without any personality or free will of their own
walsh
-
parsons
pictures humanity as an automaton, programmed directed and controlled by the system. Functionalists portray the social system as the active agents, whereas in reality only humans can act.
Marxists - conflict/structural x
overview x
believes that in
most societies there are inequalities
. Therefore, it is
difficult to achieve consensus
in society as the interests of the powerful or dominant groups may go
directly against
the interests of subordinate groups
they
reject the functionalists idea that society is stable
- Marxists argue that stability is merely the result of the R/C imposing their will on society
false consciousness
we are all distracted by our desire and
needs to consume
in a capitalists society that we can
see no alternative to the existing system.
The structure of society
superstructure
- family, religion, education (cultural institutions)
infrastructure
- the economic system that provides people's material needs (capitalism)
historical materialism
materialism
- means humans have material needs such as food, clothing, shelter and must work to achieve these
to meet their needs, they use
forces of production
which in its basic stats is unaided human labour
means of production
in working to meet their needs they cooperate with one another which they have to do to organise. They enter into
social relations of production
over time the
forces of production change and the social relations of production also change
. A division of labour develops which eventually becomes two classes
from then on the class of owners direct the production to meet their needs
Forces + Relations of production together = Mode of Production
this
mode of production
forms the economic base which in turn affects the superstructure of society
class society and exploitation
in the earliest stages of human history there were no classes, no private ownership and no exploitation
everyone works and everything is shared = this is called
primitive communism
in a
class society,
one class can
exploit
another and
keep the surplus product
capitalism
division between the bourgeoisie and a class of labourers, the proletariat
3 distinctive feactures
the proletariat are
legally free and separated from the means of production
- only receive the cost of subsistence
ownership of the means of production becomes
concentrated in fewer and fewer hands
competition forces capitalists to pay as little as possible causing the
immiseration (impoverishment) of the proletariat
production becomes concentrated in
ever-larger units
and technological advances result in a
de-skilled workforce
this produces class polarisation
class consciousness
capitalism
sows the seeds of ts own destruction
by driving the proletariat's wages down and
bringing them together in large numbers
the W/C can develop a consciousness of its own economic and political interests which are in opposition to its exploiters
the proletariat therefore change
from a class IN itself to a class FOR itself
ideology
the
dominant ideology
in society are the
ideas of the economically dominant class
who control the production of ideas
institutions which produce and spread these ideas are
education, media and religion
they produce ideologies which
legitimise the existing social order as desirable and inevitable
alienation
the loss of control over our labour as we no longer create things to meet our needs
worse in capitalism - workers are completely
separated from and have no control over the means of production
the state, revolution and communism
the state exists to protect the interests of the class of owners who control it
the R/C use the state as a weapon to protect their property, suppress opposition and prevent a revolution
the
proletariat revolution
will abolish the state and create a classless communist society
Abolish exploitation and replace private ownership with
social ownership
end alienation as humans gain control of their labour and their products
Marx expected revolutions to happen all over the world starting with the most advanced states
Karl Marx x
believed that is was possible to understand society scientifically and that this knowledge could lead to a better society
'scientific socialism'
and Marxism is an continuation of the Enlightenment project
believed capitalism would increase human misery before giving way to a
classless communist society
and then people would be free to fulfil their potential
modern capitalists societies are controlled by the U/R/C. Te U/C (minority)
owns the 'means of production'
, the
wealth to invest
and has an aim of
making profit
the W/C (majority) have
little or no wealth
and have to work to earn a living
society is
unequal
and the W/C is
exploited
. However, capitalists societies use an
ISA to legitimise
the capitalists system
Neo-Marxists - conflict/structural or humanist x
overview
accepts the some of Marx's ideas are
out of date or problematic
show that ideas created by the W/C are applied to the W/C through
religion, the media, law, education and the family
in ways that make them difficult to challenge
in certain circumstances - show how it may be possible for the W/C to
create changed in the economy through ideas
. For example, oppressed people in Latin America used religion (ideas) as a force for change and greater equality, a process known as liberation theology
humanistic - Gramsci x
emphasised the importance of the
power of ideas in shaping society
, rather than just the economy alone. Gramsci argued that, in fact, ideas have
'relative autonomy'
form the economic base
the state maintains its power through
hegemony
, R/C ideas imposed onto the W/C to make sure they
do not challenge the system
people can use
intellectual ideas
to produce a collective struggle and change society -
e.g. liberation theology
link to classic Marxism
relies on
poor economic conditions
to lead to change, like poverty, homelessness and unemployment
ideology control is dominant over the economic base and the RSA
this is one of the reasons for a lack of revolution -
the W/C had failed to develop their own vision for how society should be
the Proletariat need their
own 'counter-hegemony'
to win the leadership of society from the bourgeoisie
How is dominance maintained?
Coercion
- army, courts, police, prison
Consent
- hegemony or ideas to convince the subordinate classes that its rule is legitimate
Hegemony and Revolution
the hegemony of the R/C is
never complete
as:
the R/C are a minority
divided so they need to create a
power block with other groups like the M/C.
They therefore make
ideological compromises
because of their allies - this enabled them to rule by consent rather than using force
the proletariat have a dual consciousness
they were not completely indoctrinated - their ideas are
influenced by R/C ideology,
but
also by the poverty and exploitation
they experience. So they 'see through' the dominant ideology to some degree
while economic crisis
would lead to questioning of the status quo, revolution would only occur is the W/C could offer a
counter hegemonic block
-
ideological leadership
the W/C need their own
'organic intellectuals'
This means a group of people who are able to
formulate an alternative vision
of how society could be run - socialist rather than capitalists values
Evaluation x
Accused of over emphasising the role of ideas and under-emphasising state coercion and economic factors
workers may accept capitalism not because they accept the moral leadership of the R/C but because they
feel there's no real alternative
. They fear unemployment, etc
Supporting
willis' x lads
who see through the school's ideology and recognise that meritocracy is a myth - use the consciousness and role of ideas to see through societies ISA
see humans as
creative beings
, able to make history through their conscious actions
Structuralist - Althusser x
STRUCTURAL DETERMINISM - society consists of 3 levels
the
economic
level
the
political
level
the
ideological
level - ISA
these levels
preserve and justify
the capitalistic system in various ways
the state performs
political and ideological
functions that ensure that reproduction of capitalism. The state is divided into 2 apparatuses.
RSA
- 'armed bodies of men -
this is the traditional Marxist view
ISA
- the media, education, family, trade unions, etc -
this is much wider than the traditional Marxist view
similar to
gramsci's coercion and consent view
link to Gramsci
- argued that ideas are important, however, the economy is more important in his ideas
Classical Marxism
criticises the base-superstructure model
under Marx's model,
society's economic base determines its superstructure of institutions, ideologies and actions
. Marx argues that contradictions in the base cause changes in the superstructure and brings about the downfall of capitalism
Althusser rejects this Economic Determinism
- the economy determines everything
instead created
structural determinism
(consisting of the 3 levels)
structural determinism has 3 levels
- political and ideological levels have relative autonomy from the economic level
the political and ideological levels are not a mere reflection of the economic level, they can affect what happens to the economy.
instead of one-way causality, we have two-way causality
criticism of humanism
sense of free will and creativity is an illusion
society is a puppet theatre and we are merely puppets (
Ian Craib
)
the unseen structures are the
puppet masters
, determining all out thoughts and actions
disagree with
humanists
who believe that people can use their
creativity, reason and free will
to change society
this idea that we possess free will is simply
false consciousness
produced by the ideological state apparatus (
ISA
)
we are
products of social structures
that determine everything about us, preparing us to fit into pre-existing positions in the structure of capitalism
socialise will only come about because of a crisis of capitalism resulting from
over determination
this is the
contradictions in the three structures
that occur resulting in the collapse of the system as a whole
Evaluation x
although he rejects economic determinism, he replaces it with a more complex '
structural determinism'
Gouldner x
this approach discourages political action as individuals will see themselves as having little effect
Thompson x
accuses Althusser of
elitism
- the belief that the communist party knows what is best for the workers who must blindly follow them
Supporter - Ian Craib x
'the most sophisticated conception of social structures'
his ideas have been used by
Postmodernists
who reject the idea that
scientific knowledge
can be used to
improve society
feminists - conflict/structural x
liberal x
Overview
focus on the legal restrictions that women face in society, and seek reform through the public sphere
'second wave' of feminism
- believe that equality between the sexes can be obtained through gradual changes and revolution is not necessary
women can gain equal rihts through changes in law and social policy
Equal Pay Act 1970
Sex Discrimination Act 1975
Betty Freidman
there is a
feminine mystique'
in society - cultural myth that women seek security and fulfilment in domestic life and feminine behaviour
discourages women from entering employment, politics, public sphere, etc
evaluation
'over-optimistic' -
they see the obstacles of inequality as simply the prejudice of individuals or irrational laws that can be gradually reformed.
ignore the
significance of deep rooted structures
causing women's oppression - patriarchy and capitalism
reform simply means that
women become 'male-identified'
. they have access to the male world rather than a world which women have true freedom
Radical
focuses on the
public sphere rather than the private sphere
Sex and Gender - differentiates between the 2
sex
- biological make up of men and women
gender
- culturally constructed differences between 'masculine and feminism'
Mary Wollstonecraft
if men were confined to the same cages that trap women, men would develop the same flawed characters
Radical x
overview x
emerged in the late 1960s as a response to liberal feminism, who they argue focus too much on the public sphere and ignore the private sphere.
society is patriarchal
Millet x
described patriarchy as a system that runs through all political, social and economic structures and is found in every society
the family is '
Patriarchy's chief institution'
firestone x
patriarchy lies in women's ability to bear and care for children, making them dependent on males.
the personal is political
all relations between men and women are political - patriarchy in the private sphere confines most women to the home so largely excludes them from the public sphere of work, economic and politics.
men are the enemy
sexuality is socially constructed by men to suit their own desires. Men make women their 'plaything' and women are seen as sexual objects.
Brownmiller x
men dominate women through the process of intimidation y which all men keep all women in a state of fear
men rape because they can. They have the biological capacity to do so and even men who do not rape benefit from the fear and anxiety they all women experience
revolutionary change - solutions
there needs to be a sexual revolution - common consciousness to overthrow the patriarchy
women would establish a sisterhood and unite to condemn patrairchal domination
seen through current 'SlutWalk' marches
women should form matrifocal/all-female households
Greer
- separatism
heterosexual relationships are
'sleeping with the enemy'
- lesbianism is the only non-oppressive form of sexuality
evaluation x
assumes that all women are the same and ignores gender differences between social class and ethnicity
extreme to assume that all men are the same and therefore 'all men are the enemy'
inadequate theory of how patriarchy will be abolished
Liberal - Somerville
separatism is unlikely to be achievable or even desirable for many women
liberal
- women's position in society has greatly improved in recent years - is revolution necessary
neglect the violence committed against men by females along with violencewithin lesbian relationship
Marxists
- does not pay enough attention to class and the effectof capitalism.
Firestone x
women are at a
biological disadvantage in their search for power and equality because they undergo pregnancy and birth, which makes them weak and vulnerable.
They are also tied down by the requirements of breastfeeding and menstruation. Men have taken
advantage of these weaknesses to monopolise their power in society
the only way to overcome these problems is to
abolish pregnancy through the development of artificial wombs
Evidence
30,000 women are sacked each year simply for being pregnant and each year an estimated 440,000 women lose out on pay or promotion as a result of pregnancy
Marxist x
overview x
women's disadvantaged position
stems directly from the capitalist economy
. Capitalism leads to the accumulation of wealth and so men need to have
heir to inherit that wealth
it is women's job to produce those heirs and the future labour force -
'reproduction of labour power'
female subordination supports capitalism by ensuring a cheap supply of waged and domestic labour with which to sustain the capitalist economic system -
'reserve army of labour'
Ansley x
women absorb anger which would otherwise be directed at capitalism -
'takers of shit' and explains DV
Barrett x
'familial ideology'
fits in with capitalist system. Women become domestic labourers and dependent on men.
divides the W/C into the waged and the unwaged - reduces the revolutionary potential of the W/C
women stay in these oppressive family types as they see it as
natural and normal
- ideology keeps them subordinated
evaluation x
strengths x
correct to give weight to the relationships between capitalism and women'soppression in society - offer an overview on the importance of
structural factors contriburing to female subordination in society
modern day research into the gender pay gap supports the notion that capitalism may be connected to women's subordination
weaknesses x
fails to account for the exploitation and subordination of women who reside in
non-capitalist societies,
therefore the need for women to benefit capitalism cannot be applied.
fail to explain exactly why it is the women who carry out the unpaid domestic labour role and not men - appear
sex blind
in this instance
underplay the significance of non-material causes of inequality between the sexes
women make up approx. 45% of journalists globally, but only 0.2% are black women - oppression is clearly stemmed by ethnic difference, rather than sex difference
wealth does not always mean equality
wealthy women are still more likely to be sexually harassed and victims of DV. An exclusive focues on eocnomics may be misleading
dual system feminists - Radical+Marxist x
sociologists have combined radical and Marxist feminism together to create a system theory - ideology of
'patriarchal capitalism'
Hartmann x
the concepts of patriarchy and capitalism and intertwined and to therefore explore the subordination of women effectively - do so in the
public (domestic work) and in the private sphere (capitalsim)
evaluation
Walby x
the two concepts collide with one another
. The domestic sphere keeps women out of paid work due to patriarchy yet in a capitalist society they demand the need for women to perform cheap labour.
Walby - 6 structures of Patriarchy x
the state
- gov run by men so policies and laws tend to favour men's interests
violence
- men are able to use thier physicality to intimidate women
domestic labour
- women still complete the majority of domestic labour even though these is no reason for this
paid work
- women earn less then men and they are overwhelmingly in low paid and part timework
sexuality
- the difference in how men and women's sexuality is perceived. Women are sluts, men are players.
culture
- portrayed of women in culture and the media is often in a sexual way or in a way that reinforces women's lower status
difference and post-structural x
overview - difference x
the reality of female subordination discussed by other feminists branches simply resembles the subordination felt by women who are
white, M/C, heterosexual and from Western societies
aims to
reflect the diversity of women's experiences and incorporate all women of culture, class and ethnicity and their problems
, something liberal, radical and Marxist feminists fail to do.
Butler x
the best way to explore the experience of women in society is to simply look at the
discourse in societies
. Our world can give power to those we define.
the Enlightenment gave ideals that legitimised western, M/C, white male dominance in society
overview - post-structural x
their view on females
cannot be a single shared entity
as women do not share the same 'essence' (experience).
Discourses shape identities and with a variety of time and cultures, the identity of what it is to be a women will also
differ between such things
.
example
women in Saudi Arabia are controlled via Islamic discourse, yet women in the west can shape their identity through media advertisement.
by exploring a variety of discourses and how they resemble women, we can get a
better overview of knowledge of how they subordinate women
we will be able to
recognise the diversity of women's lives and struggles
, rather than prioritising some women's struggles and excluded others who are not resembled in previous feminist ideas
evaluation x
difference and post-structural feminism fails to
acknowledge or celebrate the many similarities of women
in society, such as patriarchy. Women are all at greater risk of low pay, DV and sexual assault
by outlining that women are different and not all the same we can create 'sub-groups' of women, which essentially
has the power to weaken feminism as a movement for change and can create conflict
between different groups of women.
social action x
social action theory x
overview x
interested in everyday social situations
examine the
social interactions
of individuals and small groups in the hope of understanding what takes place and
why
they want to know how people
interpret situations
and how thay come to define their
identities
how do the
reactions
from others shape people's experiences and the identities they have of themselves
it is individuals that shape society and the social institutions within it and NOT the other way around
believe that individuals have
FREE WILL
. This means they have the power and freedom to choose how to
behave, react and how to see themselves.
methodology
focus on small groups and individuals
interested in
understanding
individual/small group
behaviour in everyday situations
not interested in studying trends and patterns, instead they focus on
why behaviour occurs and the meanings attached to it
take a MICRO approach to society
Weber - integrated approach x
people hold
meanings
about the world and consciously
action the basis of those meanings
saw behaviour in terms of the
meanings people attach to actions
saw
both structural and actions
approaches as necessary for understanding human behaviour. He argues that an adequate explanation involves
2 levels:
the level of
cause
- structural/objective measurments
the level of
meaning
- subjective meanings
applied to the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
structural cause
- the protestant reformation caused a new belief system to be created - Calvinism
subjective meaning
- work took on a religious meaning for the Calvinists, which motivated them to work.
evaluation x
unlike the structural and actions theories, it
acknowledges the objective and subjective values
placed upon out actions
his ideas on types of actions have been critiques for being
difficult to measure
.
Shultz x
too
individualistic
- doesn't allow shared meanings
four types of action are difficult to apply to one action
is
verstehen
really possible
the level of meaning
there are however an infinite number of subjective meanings that actions can have - tried to classify into 4 types based on their meaning for the actor.
instrumental
means to attain a particular goal are rationally chosen
E.g., people pursues college degree to hopefully obtain a job that grants financial security
value rational
striving for a goal which may not be rational, but is pursued by rational means
E.g., person follows teachings of a prophet, or lives a certain way in hopes of receiving "eternal salvation"
affectual
action via emotional means
E.g., grief and crying
traditional
actions that are guided by customary habits
E.g., person attends a particular college because their significant other is enrolled there
Verstehen
recognised that people have choice and can act to change societal structures
he recognised that people did not have total free will because of structured, such as inequality which impact upon status and class
beliefs change the structures of society
symbolic interactionism x
overview x
focuses on small scale interactions rather than on the social structure
tries to identify how meanings are constructed through social action
these actions are based on the meanings we give to situations, conveyed through symbols
it argues that people have a degree of control and influence over social behaviour
Mead x
people define and
interpret the world through the meanings
they attach to it
reality is therefore a
subjective reality
the meanings people hold are
constructed from and communicated
in the form of
symbols
symbols
things like objects, words, expressions or gestures that stand for something, to which we have
attached meaning
we act based on these meanings
they evoke feelings and meanings that are
shared and/or individual
the self
in order to respond to the meanings of those symbols, we must first know
who we are in this world of symbols and meanings
. Crucially, we must understand who we are in the eyes of other
social life is a constant stream of symbolic communication with meanings being constantly
negotiated and re-negotiated
people can do this by being able to take the
role of the other
(putting ourselves in their place and seeing ourselves as others see us)
evaluation x
ignores wider social structures
where do norms come from
summary
taking on the role of others means putting oneself in the place of the other person and seeing ourselves as they see us.
How do we take on the role of the other? - role taking
Through the process of
social interaction.
Firstly as young children through
imitative play
where we start to see ourselves as
our significant other see us
.
Then we start to
see ourselves as the wider community do
- Generalised Other
this means that to be able to
function as members of society
, we need the ability to
see ourselves as others see us
. through shared symbols, especially language, we become
conscious of the ways of acting that others require of us
.
Symbol Vs. Instinct
unlike animals, our behaviour is not shaped by fixed or pre-programmed instincts
we respond to the world by giving meaning to the things that are significant to us.
interpretative phase
- the process between experiencing the stimulus and reacting to is, where the situation and it's symbols are interpreted in order to choose the appropriate response.
Blumer x
identified
3 key principles of interactionism
our actions are based on the
meanings we give to situations, people, etc
they are not automatic responses to stimuli
these meanings arise from
interactions
and are to some extent
negotiable and changeable
the meanings we give to situations are mainly the result of taking the
role of the other
we have to understand the
type of person we are dealing
with to be able to understand
how they will interpret you
, as well as what they
may expect from you
we do
internalise the expectations of others
, but it is not completely fixed, there is room for
negotiating and choice
in how we
perform our roles
, even in strict environments.
evaluation
not all actions are meaningful
describes actions and meanings but does not explain
application to Labelling theory x
Thomas x
definition of the situation
the definition of the something is its label therefore people label situations, events and people which can have real world consequences.
For example - a teacher labels a student as troublesome and will therefore act differently towards that student
Cooley x
looking Glass Self
the way that we develop our
'self-concept'
A self-fulfilling prophecy can occur as we become ourseolve how others see us.
Becker and Lemert x
Career
the process of labelling, from identification, to the label being attached, accepted ot rejected by the labelled, to the creation of a master status.
Goffman
labelling theory
sees the individual as the passive victim of other people's labels -
disagrees and argues that we construct our 'self'
dramatical analogy
as in the theatre, people's roles are not fixed, and they can
interpret their roles in many different ways
people are aware that they are doing this and life is a process of self presentation. We use props, stages, etc to
control how we appear to others.
this is made possible by our ability to see ourselves as others see us -
IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
role distance
distance between our
real self and our roles
- we can therefore
change and modify social roles
also suggests that the soles we play can be
calculating
- we can manipulate the audience into seeing us a
certain way.
Thereby we conceal our true motives
contradiction to functionalists
they propose the idea that we
fully internalise our roles
into which we have been socialised - there is no role distance from who we are and how we are perceived.
presentation of self
front stage self
- the act we put on for other people. The front stage is where we spend most of our lives
Back stage
- the private place where we can truly be ourselves and prepare to return to the front stage.
evaluation x
strengths x
provides real insight into the social construction of meaning
e.g.,
labelling in schools can generate SFP of success or failure
it recognises people
create their own society through choices
, thereby avoiding deterministic criticisms
Weaknesses x
ignored wider
social structures
(not as free as we think we are)
can't explain
patterns of behaviour
seen in society (functionalists say these come from norms dictating behaviour)
fails to explain
motivation
from actions - where do people get their goals from?
ethnomethodology
argues that although it is correct to focus on interactions, Symbolic interactionalism fails to explain how the actors create the meanings
Dramatic analogy
has its limitation as everyone plays both roles of actor and audience and interactions are often improvised and unrehearsed.
phenomenology x
overview x
it is called the interpretation of meanings
tend to oppose structural theories - there are no 'hard facts' about the world
tend to oppose naturalism (also called objectvism and positivism)
tend to justify
cognition
- all info about the world is in the human mind
phenomena
are things as they appear to the senses, they are the things that have characteristics in common.
Schutz x
applied the philosophical idea that we describe things as they appear to the sense, and can
never have definitive knowledge of what the world outside is really like, as we only know what our minds tell us, to the social world
.
we share
typification's (categories)
to classify the world with other members of society. - how we categories things is not unique to an individual, as we share them with members of society.
this makes social order possible, because it gives society a
shared 'life world' of common sense knowledge
which helps in everyday interactions.
'recipe knowledge'
we can follow common sense knowledge like a recipe and without having to think too much.
The
social world only exists
when we
share the same meanings.
Therefore, the fact that society appears as real shows we share the
same meanings and this allows us to co-operate
with each other.
without shared typifications
social order would be impossible
. Typifications stabilise society, they ensure that we are all 'speaking from the same page'
the meaning of an action varies according to its social context.
Meaning is given by the context and not by the action itself.
Husserl x
the
world only makes sense because we impose meaning on it.
- we construct mental categories of objects, situations and meanings to our experiences
we classify and file information passed onto us through our sense.
the world is a product of our mind
Berger and Luckman x
reality is more than a social construct and becomes external to us and shapes our lives.
ethnomethodology x
overview x
refers to the
description of the methods
used by people to make
sense of and construct order
in their everyday life.
wants to understand
how we create a shared reality
through the application of common sense knowledge
it explores the
methods
that individuals use to
make sense of their social world
and accomplish their daily actions
interested in the methods, rituals and rules individuals use to
produce meanings
- different to interactionists, who focus on the
effects of these meanings
Garfinkle x
argues that members of society
assume that the social world is ordered and makes sense.
however, this order and sense may not actually exist - it is all an illusion
instead it is
socially constructed in our minds
and we impose a sense of order because we apply
common-sense procedures
, rules and assumptions.
society therefore
only seems stable and ordered because people share these assumptions
, therefore reality is just created in our minds.
there is
no such thing as 'society' and social order is achieved
by individuals making effective
interpretations
by using their
common sense knowledge.
social order in society is accomplished
Indexicality
nothing has fixed meaning, everything depends on context - if meanings are
unclear they threaten societies stability
Reflexivity
we are able to
act as if meanings are clear
, preventing indexicality.
we use our
common-sense to construct meaning and order
to prevent indexicality from occurring.
disrupting social order experiment
Students acted as lodgers in their own home, acting polite and unlike their normal selves.
They
challenged reflexivity
as the parents felt undermined and confused.
Taken for granted assumptions can be challenged
and social order is an accomplishment - actively pursued
'documentary method' x
we select certain aspects of the world, define them in a particular way
supported by Atkinson's study of suicide (1983) x
suggested that classifying a sudden death as suicide was simply a
social construction of meaning
coroners make sense of deaths by
selecting facts
about the deceased
they
use this pattern to inform their judgement of cause of death
evaluation x
strengths x
it make sense to see human actively using our free will and not act as puppets as Macro theorists suggest
weaknesses x
suggests individuals identify patterns and create meaning for themselves. Therefore
Ems must also do this
- why should we believe their view of reality? - Its their view not ours.
where do the norms come from in the first place?
Functionalists would argue that norms are social facts not shared fiction
Marxists
would argue that
'common sense knowledge' is R/C ideology
'Taken for granted rules' are no surprise to anyone
one study found that in phone conversations, one person speaks at a time.
Giddens - structuration x
accepts the value of both views and attempts to combine the 2 (structural and actions theory) into one unified theory
through our actions we
produce and reproduce structures over time and space
, whilst these structures are what
makes our actions possible
in the first place
structure has 2 elements
rules
- the norms, customs and laws that govern our action
resources
- both economic and the power over others.
through our actions we reproduce the structure.
example
actions such as obeying the law repoduce the structureof law and order in society.
reflexive model
actions can also change the structure of society. We constantly
reflect on our actions and can deliberately choose a new course
of action if we wish. This can
change the structure
of society.
link to Durkheim
structure seems to exist
independently to the individual
, and it
constrains behaviour
, like one of his
social facts
.
evaluation x
archer x
claims that Giddens
underestimates the capacity of structures to resist change
. For example, slaves may want to abolish slavery but lack the power to do so.
Craib x
the structuration theory isn't a theory but a
description of things
we find in society such as actions, rules and resources.
fails to explain how the theory
applies to large-scale structures
such as the economy and the state.