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Memory overview, Baddeley (1996), Duration is the time period that…

- - - - Jacobs (1887)
        
        Sperling (1960)
        
        Method
        
        Participants were shown grids of letters (three rows of four letters) for 0.05 seconds. Control methods were done first to measure the individual's ability to recall the letter as this will be unique. Two different scenarios: Recall the whole grid, Recall a single row.
        
        Results
        
        Recall whole grid - participants only managed to recall four or five letter out of the total of 12 letter.
        
        Recall single row - they could only recall three letters out of the four in a row. The results were consistent no matter which row was selected.
        
        Conclusions
        
        1) Sensory register is finite. 2) Participants did not know which row was to be selected so they viewed whole grid so whole grid was in sensory register. Could not recall all the letters as the trace faded and information decayed.
        
        Evaluation
        
        Highly controlled lab experiment - easy to replicate and reliable.
        
        Lacks mundane realism and has low ecological validity.
        
        Method
        
        Lab experiment. Participants asked to recall list of numbers or letters. Had to recall them in order which sequence was presented. Repeated procedure until they could not recall the sequence accurately. Each sequence increased by one letter or digit each time. 9, 98, 984, 9845, 98452.
        
        Results
        
        Participants could recall a longer string of digits than of letters. On average, they could recall nine digits and seven letters. The capacity of STM increased with age.
        
        Conclusions
        
        Capacity - STM capacity is finite. There is a limit on how much is stored and so recalled. Capacity is five to nine pieces of info.
        
        Age - capacity increases with age because of learning or memory techniques.
        
        Digits may be easier to recall because there are only 10 possible digits compared to 26 possible letters.
        
        Evaluation
        
        Lab experiment so lacked extraneous variables.
        
        Lacked ecological validity. Lacked mundane realism because numbers and letters are irrelevant.
        
        Methodological issues - Confusion between similar sequences between current and previous trials.
  - - - Duration - very quick (0.5 seconds)
      - Capacity - large
      - Coding - specific to each sense
      - Stimuli from the environment are processed first in the sensory register. The information is quickly discarded or transferred to short-term memory.
    - - Is the point of processing sensory memory. This then determines whether information is moved into long-term memory or not.
      - Duration - 20 seconds
      - Capacity - seven chunks +/- two
      - Coding - primarily acoustic
    - - Long-term memory is like the brain's hard-drive.
        
        Implicit memories
        
        Procedural memories
        
        It stores information about how to do things. For example, how to swim.
        
        They are not part of our consciousness.
        
        Explicit memories
        
        Semantic memories
        
        Stored in our semantic memory is knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts.
        
        Episodic memories
        
        Episodic memory is information about events we have personally experienced.
        
        It involves the recollection of visual imagery as well as the feeling of familiarity.
        
        It is memory of particular places are particular times, the what, where, and when of an event.
        
        They are part of our consciousness.
      - Duration - unlimited
      - Capacity - unlimited
      - Coding - semantic mainly
  - - - Participants were asked to memorise a list of common words and then recall them.
        
        Participants remembered more words form the beginning of the list and the end, and little words from the middle.
        
        This is because the beginning words had been moved into the LTM due to rehearsal and the end words were still in the STM. The middle words weren't in the STM because the STM has limited capacity.
        
        Supports the idea that STM and LTM are separate stores.
    - - HM had epilepsy and after a surgery went wrong his hippocampus was destroyed. This left him with anterograde amnesia which meant he could make any new memories.
        
        HM had the ability to learn new motor skills so his procedural memory was intact. He couldn't make new episodic or semantic memories. He had a working memory because he was able to hold conversations. His issues was his STM and LTM were no longer connected.
        
        This supports the idea of separate stores for STM and LTM.
- - - - Role
        
        The Pl deals with auditory information and the order of information.
        
        Two sub systems - Baddeley (1986)
        
        The primary acoustic store (inner ear) - stores words recently heard.
        
        Evidence
        
        Trojani and Grossi (1995)
        
        Conducted a case study of an individual known as SC, who suffered brain damage affecting the functioning of the PL but not the visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS).
        
        This suggests the PL and VSS are separate systems.
        
        Baddeley et al (1975)
        
        Investigated what is known as the word length effect, where participants recalled more short words in serial order than longer words.
        
        Baddeley concluded that the capacity of the PL is set by the duration of words and not the number of words.
        
        Evaluation
        
        PET scans show that different areas are activated when doing verbal and visual tasks. This adds further support that the PL and VSS exist as separate systems within the brain infrastructure.
        
        The PL is associated with the evolution of human vocal language.
        
        The development of the PL is seen to convey an evolutionary advantage. This is because of short-term ability to remember vocalisations which help in the learning of more complex language abilities, such as grammar and meaning.
    - - Role
        
        Evidence
        
        Logie (1995)
        
        Suggests sub-dividing the VSS into a visual cache (VC) that stores visual information in the form of colour, and an inner scribe (IS) that handles spatial relationship, rehearses and transfers information in the visual cache to the central executive.
        
        Klauer and Zhao (2004)
        
        Found more interference between two visual tasks than between a visual and a spatial task. This adds support to the notion of a separate VC and IS component.
        
        Gathercole and Baddeley (1993)
        
        Found that participants encountered problems when simultaneously tracking a moving point of light and performing a spatial task.
        
        This difficulty arose because both tasks involved using the VSS.
        
        Participants had little difficulty tracking the light and performing a verbal task simultaneously. This was because one task was using the phonological loop and the other was using the VSS.
        
        Evaluation
        
        PET scans indicate that PL and VSS are located in different parts of the brain.
        
        Studies into the VSS often lack mundane realism because many of the studies use dual-task techniques that are rarely encountered in everyday life.
        
        The VSS temporarily stores visual and spatial information, including the relationship between them (such as what they are and where they are located).
        
        The VSS helps people to navigate around and interact with their physical environment.
        
        Information in the VSS is coded and rehearsed through the use of mental pictures.
    - - Role
        
        Baddeley added the EB in 2000 because it had been suggested that the working memory model needed a general store to operate correctly.
        
        The EB explains how it is possible to temporarily store information combined together from the central executive, the phonological loop, the visual spatial sketchpad and long-term memory.
        
        The EB tries to correct problems caused by the limited capacity of both the Pl and the VSS as well as problems with CE storage of visual and acoustic information.
        
        Evidence
        
        Prabhakaran et al
        
        Used fMRI scans and found greater right-frontal brain activation for combined verbal and spatial information, but greater posterior activation for non-combined information. This provides biological support for an EB that allows the temporary storage of integrated information.
        
        Alkhalifa (2009)
        
        Described the case of a patient with severely impaired long-term memory who, nevertheless, demonstrated a short-term memory capacity of up to 25 prose items, exceeding the capacity of both the PL and the VSS. This provides support for an episodic buffer that holds information in working memory until it is recalled.
    - - Role
        
        Evidence
        
        Evaluation
        
        Little is known is about the CE at present and it isn't cleat how it works or what it does precisely.
        
        This vagueness means that it can be used to explain a variety of experimental results.
        
        The CE is perhaps better understood as a component that controls the focus of attention, rather than being a memory store.
  - - - Aim
        
        To investigate a patient KF who had suffered brain damage in a motorcycle accident.
      - Method
        
        A case study using numerous psychometric tests, experiments and observations.
      - Results
        
        KF's short term memory problems were much greater for auditory information than visual, suggesting his brain damage was restricted to the phonological loop.
      - Conclusion
        
        The case of KF supports both the MSM and the WMM as his LTM was unaffected by his injury, suggesting LTM and STM are different stores.
        
        His case supports the WMM as his visuospatial sketchpad seems unaffected by his injury, suggesting that resides in a different area of the brain to the phonological loop which was damaged.
      - Evaluation
        
        Strength: in depth and detailed
        
        Limitations: cannot generalise from a case study.
    - - Lacks ecological validity - dual tasks experiments are very artificial.
      - Lacks generalisability - cant generalise from case studies on brain damaged patients.
      - Ambiguity about LTM - It is only a model of working memory and leaves many unanswered questions about the structure of LTM.
- - - - Forgetting information can be down to:
        Accessibility - information that was once stored is difficult to retrieve.
        Interference - memory is inaccessible because of old or new information blocking retrieval.
      - Interference
        
        Sometimes information is stored in our memory, but for some reason it is inaccessible. This is known as interference, and there are two types: proactive interference and retroactive interference.
        
        Proactive Interference
        
        When old information hinders the recall of newly learned information.
        
        Retroactive Interference
        
        When information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information.
        
        Pros and Cons
        
        Many lab experiments support the ideas of proactive and retroactive interference.
        
        The theory is limited because it does not explain how interference occurs. It only explains why we forget memories.
        
        Evidence
        
        Underwood and Postman (1960)
        
        Procedure
        
        A labatory experiment with two groups of participants.
        Both participants were given word pairs to learn.
        The experimental group was also given a second list to learn where the second word in the pair was changed. Both groups were then asked to recall the original list.
        
        Study on retroactive interference
        
        Study on proactive interference
        
        Procedure
        
        2 more items...
- - - - 90% accuracy name-recognition
      - 60% accuracy free recall
    - - 30% accuracy free recall
    - - 80% accuracy name-recognition
      - 40% accuracy photo-recognition
- - - - Reliable - easy to replicate
      - Practical application for education, in particular revision.
    - - Lacks ecological validity - not how we use memory in everyday life.
      - The results could be explained by the limited capacity of STM rather than retroactive interference.
      - Interference only really explains forgetting when two pieces of information are really similar.
- - - - Retrieval failure can be examined by giving participants lists of words to learn. some are given a category title (the cue) and others are not.
        
        The success of the retrieval cue depends on how overloaded it is (fewer associated items = more effective).
        
        Recall is also more effective the deeper the processing cue is at the time of processing and how well the cue fits the information associated with it.
  - - - In one condition, the lists of words were given a category heading, such as 'fruit', followed by the names of the items.
        
        Participants were told that they only needed to recall the item and not the headings.
        
        Participants who weren't given the headings as cues recalled fewer words than those given the cued headings.
- - - - Recall was found to be more difficult if the state in which the learner the material differed from that in which it was tested.
        
        For example, participants performed better on a test when drunk if they had learned the material whilst drunk.
  - - - The ability to perform learned skills, such as riding a bike, isn't affected by state-dependent failure.
        
        The effect found by Godden and Baddeley only happened with free recall items. When participants were asked to identify the correct items from a list, researchers found no context based effect. This would suggest that cue-dependency doesn't explain all forms of forgetting.
    - - Abernathy (1940)
        
        Found participants, after learning some material, performed worse on a test when tested by an unfamiliar teacher in unfamiliar surroundings than when they were tested by a familiar teacher in familiar surroundings.
      - Godden and Baddeley (1975)
        
        Discovered that when divers learned material underwater, they recalled the information better when tested underwater than when on land. This supports the theory of context-dependent memory.