research methods year 2
features of science
a theory: a set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain events of behaviours + theory construct: the process of developing an explanation for the causes of behaviour by systematically gathering evidence and the organising this into a theory
empirical method: scientific approaches that are based on gathering evidence through direct observation and experience
falsifiability: admitting falsification through the use of a theory hypothesis observation or experiment
replicability: : a study should produce the same results if repeated either by the same researcher or another
paradigm: a set of assumptions attitudes and concepts and values procedure and techniques that consistutes a generally accepted theoretical framework within or a general perspective of a dicipline
paradigm shift: the result of a scientific revolution when there is a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific disicpline
case study and content analysis:
thematic analysis is a technique that helps identify themes brought qualitative data
coding : is an important step in content analysis which involves the researcher developing categories for the data to be classified
evaluation can avoid ethical issues because much of the material analysed already exists in the public domain no issues with permittion
Reliability:
test-retest; a method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire or by test by assessing the same person on two different occasions - test produces the same answer
inter-rater reliability second observer, agree on categories, observe independently, tick or tally these behaviours, establish correlation - statistical test, 0.8 correlation = reliability
improving reliability
observations behavioural categories have been properly operationalised and they are measurable
experiments standardised procedures - more control over extraneous variables
interviews should use fixed questions and a structured interview
questionnaires test retest method if the correlation is 0.8 then it should be re-writen/ edited
validity: a study actually measures what it claims to measure
- external: a measure of wether data can be generalised to other situations outside of research environment
- temporal: the extent to which research findings can be applied across time
- ecological - refers to the extent to which psychologists can apply their findings to other settings e.g. everyday life
- internal: a measure of wether results obtained are solely affected by changes In the variable being manipulated in a cause and effect relationship
improving validity
questionnaires keeping responses anonymous likely to be more truthful
studies control group allows researchers to see if IV influences DV
observations: Covert observations reduce demand characteristics + use of behavioural categories - reduces researcher subjectivity
Probability: is a measure of the likely hood that a particular event will occur, and Significance: indicated the association between two or more variables is strong enough for us to accept the alternative hypothesis
type 1 error when we accept the experimental hypothesis when the results were actually due to change
type 2 error when we reject the experimental hypothesis when the results were actually significant
The sign test:
the critical value:: when the statistical test has been calculated the researcher is left with a number = the calculated value
in order to see wether the result is significant this is compared to a set of data = critical value
method:
- identify wether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional
- calculate the sign by recording each piece of nominal data with a + or -, depending on wether the difference is positive or negative if there is no difference a 0 should be used
- calculate the value of sign (s) by adding up the total number of plusses and minuses and selecting the smaller total value
- calculate the total number of scores subtracting any 0 (N- how many participants gave a score)
- use the N score to find the critical value on the critical value table
- determine wether the value of S is significant - it must be qual to or less than the critical value at the 0.05 level
- draw conclusion
hypothesis, correlations and experiments:
correlations: look for a relationship between variables
Experiments: look for a difference between groups or conditions of a study
levels of data
ordinal rank order (scale non equal) (order before ranking)
interval continuous (equal scale with equal intervals)
nominal distinct categories (you can be 20 or 25)
choosing a statistical test: (table on sticky note)
- data quantitative data can be divides into different levels of measurement
- difference is the investigation looking at a difference or correlation between two variables
related refers to data in which participants in each condition are related in some manner therefore this would mean that the researcher has used repeated measures or matching pairs
- design what type of experimental design is being used in the investigations
unrelated refers to having two groups of people in each condition of the study and so would refer to an independent groups design
reporting psychological investigations:
- introduction discussing previous research from the same field- outline why research is being conducted
- abstract includes all the major elements- aim hypothesis a brief outline method and conclusion ( end of report) 150-200 words
- method typically split into several sections - design, sample participants + target population, apparatus, procedure
consent form : given to participants before they take part in research
- result should summarise the findings from the investigator - use statistical graphs tables ect
debriefing form given to participant after study has taken place and give researchers contact details.
- discussion summarise results, discuss the limitations and wider implications of the research
- referencing give credit to the original authors of any work that has been referred to or cited within the research
content analysis: a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data
case study is an in-depth investigation, description and analysis of individual/ small group