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Leadership C3I - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Nahkampfwaffen
        
        leise?
        
        Thermal/Nachtsichtfähig/Laser?
        
        AT
        
        AT4CS
        
        M3 (AA/DP
        
        SMAWS (AT/DP/Spotting)
        
        Granatwerfer
        
        Unterlauf
        
        M32?
        
        LMG, DM-kurz
      - Notfallmedizin
        
        Medic?
      - Sprengstoff
      - Rauch
        
        Gewehr-
        
        Hand-
        
        Farben?
        
        weiß (nachts!)
        
        grün
        
        gelb
        
        rot
        
        von Mörser möglich?
      - Granaten
        
        Gewehr-
        
        Hand-
    - - eher laut
      - Thermal/Nachtsichtfähig/Laser?
      - Optische Zielhilfen
      - AT
        
        Metis (Hohl/Thermob)
        
        M3 (AA/DP)
        
        SMAWS (AT/DP/Spotting)
        
        Javelin
      - MG/AR
        
        LMG/MMG?
        
        AssistentAR?
        
        Lauftasche
      - AA (x3?)
      - (Designated)Marksman
        
        Entfernung mittel/hoch?
        
        laut/leise?
      - Scout/Sniper/Spotter/FO
        
        MX-2 Thermal
        
        SOFLAM
        
        Rangefinder
        
        (117er Funk)
      - Notfallmedizin
      - Medic
        
        Rauch lila/gelb
        
        Unterlaufgranatwerfer/M32?
        
        Silenced?
      - Crew-Served-Weapons? (2-4 Mann)
        
        Mörser 60/81er (HE/WP)
        
        TOW
        
        Mk19
        
        M2??
      - Funker
        
        Squadfunker
        
        Assistent
      - Rauch
        
        Hand-
        
        Farben?
        
        weiß (nachts!)
        
        grün
        
        gelb
        
        rot
        
        von Mörser möglich?
- - - - 148
        
        Kanal 11-99
        
        UHF/VHF
      - 343
        
        Kanal 2-10
    - - Squadintern
      - Teamintern
      - Boden/Boden 2
      - Boden/Luft 3
      - redundant?
  - - - Squadfunkerrufzeichen
      - Assistentrufzeichen
  - - - Führungsstil/Erwartungen
        
        authoritär
        
        semi-authoritär
        
        demokratisch
        
        Sanktionen?
      - Vorwissen überprüfen
      - Wünsche der Mitspieler?
        
        vorsichtig/action
        
        =>Spielspaß=>Motivation
      - Grobplanung
      - Vorgehensweise kommunizieren
        
        grob/detail? jedenfalls klar verständlich
        
        Vorraussetzungen
        
        • klar verständlich
        
        • simpel
        
        • redundant
        
        • nur kritische Informationen, Entlastung von Routineübertragungen
      - PLTL/andere SQL/TL
      - Ausrüsten lassen
      - Taktische Ratschläge einholen
      - Aufgaben verteilen
      - Planen
    - - unter 4-Ohren, keine offene Runde
      - Führungsstil?
      - Entscheidungsgeschwindigkeit?
      - taktische Qualität?
      - bestimmte Situationen?
- - - - mündlich in der Base
  - - - Informationen aus verschiedenen Quellen
      - benötigte Informationen u. -Lücken
    - - = systematische (passive) Beobachtung von Luftraum, Boden, Orten, Personen oder Dingen m.H.v. visuellen, akustischen, elektronischen, fotografischen o.ä. Mitteln zwecks Informationssammlung
    - - = (aktive) Mission zur Aufdeckung von Informationen über Aktivitäten und Ressourcen des Feindes oder zur Datensammlung meteorologischer, hydrografischer oder geografischer Charakteristika eines bestimmten Gebiets. Aufklärungseinheiten sammeln so früh wie möglich Informationen, die gegenwärtige Vorhersagen stützen oder widerlegen. Dazu gehört die Lokalisierung mobiler Kommandoposten, Kommunikationsanlagen. Durch vorhergehende Überwachung verringert sich das Risiko für die Aufklärungseinheiten und steigert deren Effizienz. Jeder Soldat ist ein Sensor und Kommandanten sollten jeden Soldaten trainieren Beobachtungen zu melden, auch wenn sie keine spezifischen Aufklärungseinheiten sind.
- - - - M Was ist deine Mission? Betrachte den Kontext deiner Mission aus Sicht des zwei Ränge höher stehenden Kommandanten. Identifiziere Schritt für Schritt die von dir und deiner Einheit zu bewältigende Aufgaben. Decke die "Ws" ab: Wer, was, wo, wann, warum und wie.
      - AO=Side/Main?
      - Angriff
      - Support
      - Patrouille
      - EVAC
    - - E Was weißt du über den Feind? Gegen wen trittst du an? Beachte die Art, Größe, Organisation, Taktik und Ausrüstung gegnerischer Kräfte. Identifiziere ihr wahrscheinlichstes Vorgehen und ihr gefährlichstes Vorgehen.
      - Patrouille
      - Infanterie
      - KFZ
      - LFZ
      - Arty
    - - OCOKA/OAKOC
        
        Observation/Field of fire
        
        beeinflusst Platzierung von Stellungen
        
        Beobachten: Feind sehen ohne gesehen zu werden
        
        Field of fire: Von platzierten Waffen effektiv abdeckbares Gebiet
        
        Bemerkungen: Was kannst du im Gebiet erkennen? Welche Feuerbereiche hast du in Bezug auf maximale effektive Entfernung, grazing fire (bestrichener Streuungsbereich), sowie Zeit zum Bereitmachen/Flugzeit von Panzerabwehrwaffen. Wie wird Wetter die eigene/feindliche Sicht beeinflussen?
        
        Cover/Concealment
        
        natürliche/künstliche Deckung schützt vor Feindfeuer
        
        bei jedem noch so kurzen Halt Deckung suchen
        
        Einschränkungen durch verfügbare Zeit + Gelände
        
        Tarnung bietet Schutz vor Entdeckung (auch aus der Luft)
        
        Bei Bewegung ist Tarnung zweitrangig => Routen planen, sodass Feinde keine Tarnung/Deckung haben
        
        Vermeidung von Gebieten mit wenig Tarnung/Deckung = Gefahrengebiete
        
        Bemerkungen: Welches Gelände beschützt dich und deine Soldaten vor direktem/indirektem Feuer (Deckung) und von Luft- bzw. Bodenentdeckung (Sichtschutz/Tarnung)? Wie werden Licht- und Wetterverhältnisse Deckung und Sichtschutz beeinflussen?
        
        Obstacles
        
        Hindernisse die Bewegung stoppen, verzögern, umleiten
        
        natürlich
        
        Flüsse
        
        Sümpfe
        
        Klippen
        
        Berge
        
        künstlich
        
        Stacheldraht
        
        Gruben
        
        Panzersperren
        
        Hindernisse zwischen Feind und eigenen Truppen evtl. nützlich
        
        je nach Richtung von Angriff und Verteidigung
        
        Bemerkungen: Welche Objekte werden beim Angriff die Manöverfähigkeit einschränken? Wie kann man sie in den Verteidigungsplan einbeziehen? Wie beeinflussen Licht- und Wetterverhältnisse die Möglichkeit der Objekte den Feind abzulenken, dessen Bewegung umzukehren, ihn festzuhalten oder aufzuhalten?
        
        Key Terrain
        
        Schlüsselgelände bietet deutliche Vorteile für Freund/Feind bei Kontrolle
        
        Stadtgebiete wichtig wg. Straßennetzkontrolle, zerstörte Stadt = Hindernis
        
        Hohes Gelände bietet Beobachtungs-/Feuerfeldvorteile
        
        Auf freiem Feld bieten Rinnen/Geländevertiefungen/Flussbetten die beste Deckung
        
        weitere Bsp.: Brücken, Straßenkreuzungen
        
        Bemerkungen: Welches Gelände im Einsatzgebiet gewährt, wenn kontrolliert, einen entscheidenden Vorteil beim Kampf? Wo ist hohes Gelände und bietet es einen taktischen oder strategischen Vorteil?
        Wie beeinflussen Licht- und Wetterverhältnisse deine Möglichkeiten der Einnahme, Sicherung oder Verteidigung von entscheidendem Gelände?
        
        Avenues of approach
        
        Zugangsrouten zum/vom Feind/Zielgebiet/Schlüsselgelände, oft Korridore wie Täler oder offenes Gelände
        
        z.B. Bergrücken, Täler, Luftweg
        
        Anführer bestimmen wahrscheinliche Zugangsrouten basierend auf der taktischen Situation
        
        Bemerkungen: Eine Annäherungsroute ist eine Route oder Achse zum Vorstoßen auf ein Planziel oder Schlüsselgelände. Bei der Auswahl der Route müssen immer Geschwindigkeit und Sicherheit als konkurrierende Faktoren bedacht werden. Welcher Pfad gewährt Soldaten die beste Deckung beim Angriff? Welcher Weg führt deine Soldaten zur verwundbarsten Stelle des Feindes? Welche Route bietet die Höchste Geschwindigkeit um den Überraschungseffekt zu maximieren? Wie beeinflussen Licht- und Wetterverhältnisse deine Fähigkeit dich auf der Route zu bewegen, zu schießen und zu kommunizieren? Bei der Verteidigung: Welches ist die wahrscheinlichste Annäherungsroute des Gegners? Welche ist die tödlichste für deine Verteidigung? Hast du die richtigen Waffen um diese Routen abzudecken? Antizipiere das Vorgehen des Gegners aus dessen Sichtweise. Wie beeinflussen Licht- und Wetterverhältnisse die
        Fähigkeit des Feindes sich auf der Route zu bewegen, zu schießen und zu kommunizieren? Welche Route unterstützt einen Gegenangriff?
      - Sichtweite
      - Windgeschwindigkeit
    - - T Welche Truppen stehen zur Verfügung? Beachte Stärke, Anzahl und Waffen. Beachte die Fähigkeiten von angehängten Einheiten. Weise Aufgaben entsprechend der Anzahl der Soldaten in jedem untergeordneten Element zu.
      - Eigenes Squad
        
        Aufgaben/Ausrüstung
        
        Ohrstöpsel
        
        Funkgeräte
        
        Manöver (Reaktionsfähigkeit)
        
        Nahkampfwaffen
        
        leise?
        
        Thermal/Nachtsichtfähig/Laser?
        
        AT
        
        AT4CS
        
        M3 (AA/DP
        
        SMAWS (AT/DP/Spotting)
        
        Granatwerfer
        
        Unterlauf
        
        M32?
        
        LMG, DM-kurz
        
        Notfallmedizin
        
        Medic?
        
        Sprengstoff
        
        Rauch
        
        Gewehr-
        
        Hand-
        
        Farben?
        
        weiß (nachts!)
        
        grün
        
        gelb
        
        rot
        
        von Mörser möglich?
        
        Granaten
        
        Gewehr-
        
        Hand-
        
        Support (Geduld)
        
        eher laut
        
        Thermal/Nachtsichtfähig/Laser?
        
        Optische Zielhilfen
        
        AT
        
        Metis (Hohl/Thermob)
        
        M3 (AA/DP)
        
        SMAWS (AT/DP/Spotting)
        
        Javelin
        
        MG/AR
        
        LMG/MMG?
        
        AssistentAR?
        
        Lauftasche
        
        AA (x3?)
        
        (Designated)Marksman
        
        Entfernung mittel/hoch?
        
        laut/leise?
        
        Scout/Sniper/Spotter/FO
        
        MX-2 Thermal
        
        SOFLAM
        
        Rangefinder
        
        (117er Funk)
        
        Notfallmedizin
        
        Medic
        
        Rauch lila/gelb
        
        Unterlaufgranatwerfer/M32?
        
        Silenced?
        
        Crew-Served-Weapons? (2-4 Mann)
        
        Mörser 60/81er (HE/WP)
        
        TOW
        
        Mk19
        
        M2??
        
        Funker
        
        Squadfunker
        
        Assistent
        
        Rauch
        
        Hand-
        
        Farben?
        
        weiß (nachts!)
        
        grün
        
        gelb
        
        rot
        
        von Mörser möglich?
        
        Buddy-Teams vorgeben?
      - Andere Squads
        
        Bodentruppen
        
        Overwatch
        
        Sniper/Spotter
        
        FIreSupporT-Teams
      - CAS
      - Artillery
      - EVAC
    - - T Wieviel Zeit hat du? Nutze deine Zeit weise. Weise Zeit entsprechend deines Plans und möglichen Situationsänderungen zu? Befolge die ein-Drittel, zwei-Drittel Regel um die Priorität der zu erledigenden Aufgaben mit denen abzuwägen, auf die man aus Zeitmangel verzichten muss.
      - ETDeparture?
      - ETArrival?
      - Genug private Zeit?
      - Sicherheit+Ausrüstung<=>Geschwindigkeit
    - - C Wie wird die Mission Zivilisten beeinflussen? Beachte die Bevölkerungsanzahl, die Kultur und die Anführer. Z.B. Genießen Kirchen, Tempel und Moscheen einen besonderen Schutz. Der Erfolg deiner Mission könnte von der Unterstützung der Zivilbevölkerung abhängen.
  - - - Ziel: Im Fokus des Missionsziels im Vgl. zum Gegner eine vorteilhafte Position bzw. Entfernung einzunehmen
      - Manöverfertigkeit benötigt =
        
        Überblick
        
        koordinierte Feuerkraft
        
        koordinierte Bewegung
      - koordinierter entscheidender Schlag, der erst spät entdeckt wird
        
        => Synergieeffekte durch Anreicherung von Überraschungs-/Schock-/Schwungeffekten
        
        => Initiative bleibt erhalten
        
        => Gegner verliert Kontrolle
      - Ökonomie: Ausweichen+Gegner schwächen
      - +Tempo
        
        Gegner hat weniger Zeit u. trifft schlechter
        
        aber schwächt Ausdauer
        
        deshalb Tempowechsel
      - Formationen
        
        nicht aufgeklärt? => Aufklärungsteam vorschicken
        
        Route mit bester Deckung, nicht über offenes Feld laufen
        
        Overwatch von anderem Team zum Aufklären/Fixieren?
        
        Traveling
        
        Traveling Overwatch
        
        Vorteile:
        
        Tiefe
        
        schlechtere Feindwaffenwirkung
        
        Raum für Manöver auch bei Kontakt
        
        ab dann aber Bounding
        
        Flexibilität
        
        schnell
        
        kleinere Einheit = bessere Deckung / weniger Aufsehenserregung
        
        Bounding Overwatch
        
        springendes Element nutzt Deckung (um in Schussposition/Flanke zu kommen)
        
        sicherndes Element hat vorgegebene Deckungsbereiche + freies Schussfeld zum fixieren
        
        Arten
        
        Überspringendes Vorgehen
        
        schneller aber nicht so sicher
        
        Raupenartiges Vorgehen
        
        sicherer aber langsamer
        
        Nachteile
        
        langsames Vorwärtskommen
        
        sammeln dauert
        
        Feuerkraft evtl. verteilt
        
        deshalb Zeitverlust bei Blitzangrifft oder Rückzug bei Kontakt
      - Tipps
        
        • Nie vorwärts aus Deckung laufen. Besser: Zurückweichen, Umweg über tieferen Grund suchen
        
        • Auf tiefem Grund bleiben um Silhoutten auf Hügeln zu vermeiden
        
        • Formation wählen die Kampfentfernung optimal nutzt, Lücken und nichteinsehbare Gebiete minimiert
        
        • in Reichweite von Sicherungsteam auch überspringend vorgehen, da nie alles abgedeckt werden kann
        
        • Bei gefährlichen Gebieten Aktionen planen, z.B. vor dem Hügel/Straßenecke absteigen und aufklären
        
        • Erkennung durch Sicht, Rauch, Lärm so gut es geht vermeiden
        
        • Vor der Operation Spähpunkte identifizieren
      - Rückzug
        
        Absetzungsplanung
        
        Die Absetzbewegung ermöglicht der Kompanie seine Flexibilität und taktische Gewandheit zu bewahren. Das Hauptziel der Absetzbewegung der Waffenkompanie ist den Gegner auf Abstand zu halten und nicht entschieden festgenagelt oder in Gefechte verwickelt zu werden. Mehrere wichtige Faktoren sind bei der Planung zu beachten, z.B.
        
        Die Feindsituation (z.B. Kann ein Großangriff des Gegners den Rückzug verhindern)
        
        Rückzugskriterien und Rückzugslinie
        
        Verfügbarkeit von indirektem Feuer, einschließlich letztem Schutzfeuer und Rauch, die den Gegner stören und unterdrücken können
        
        Verfügbarkeit von Deckung, Sichtschutz oder Rauch zur Verschleierung und Unterstützung der Absetzbewegung
        
        Einbeziehung von Hindernissen
        
        Positionierung auf Gelände, das die Absetzbewegung erleichtert (rückwärtiger Hang, natürliche Hindernisse)
        
        Identifizierung von möglichen Rückzugsrouten und -zeiten (muss vorher besprochen werden)
        
        Größe und Zusammensetzung der Verbündeten Einheiten, die den Gegner unterdrücken um den Rückzug zu decken
        
        Bemerkungen: Obwohl Absetzbewegungen ein wertvolles taktisches Werkzeug sind, kann die Durchführung im Angesicht sich schnell bewegender feindlicher Kräfte schwierig sein. Deshalb müssen sie vor allem bei der Verteidigung sorgfältig im Voraus geplant und besprochen werden. Während des Gefechts muss der Kommandant die Situation sorgfältig analysieren um den Zeitpunkt richtig zu wählen, sonst drohen unakzeptable Verluste von Personal und Ausrüstung.
        
        Kriterien
        
        Verlagerung zu einer alternativen, ergänzenden oder nachfolgenden Schlachtposition. Der Kompaniekommandant erstellt Rückzugskriterien (z.B. Anzahl von Feinden, die einen bestimmten Punkt erreichen, Munitionsvorräte oder verbliebene Kampfkraft) und einen Plan zur Unterstützung des Manövervorhabens der Kompanie.
        
        Direkte Feuerunterdrückung
        
        Die angreifenden Feindkräfte dürfen nicht in die Lage kommen, eigene Einheiten mit effektivem direkten und indirektem Feuer zu belegen. Direktes Unterdrückungsfeuer des Sicherungselements (bzw. des verbündeten Elements) unterstützt die Absetzbewegung am effektivsten. Die Folge der Absetzbewegungen der Elemente muss sorgfältig geplant werden.
        
        Deckung und Sichtschutz
        
        Im Idealfall werden bei der Verlagerungsbewegung geschützte Routen benutzt. Unabhängig vom Grad des Schutzes sollte alle Einheiten die Bewegung vorher üben. Dies führt zu einer höheren Geschwindigkeit und mehr Schutz. Der Kommandant nutzt vorhandene Zeit um die Bewegung bei schlechten Sichtverhältnissen zu üben.
        
        Indirektes Feuer und Rauch
        
        Artillerie- oder Mörserfeuer kann die Einheit bei der Absetzbewegung unterstützen. Unterdrückungsfeuer auf eine unangenehm nahe Feindeinheit verlangsamt diese. Die Verteidiger greifen den Gegner mit direktem Präzisionsfeuer auf große Entfernung an und wechseln dann zu einer neuen Stellung. Rauch kann die Sicht des Gegners einschränken, seinen Vorstoß verlangsamen oder die Absatzbewegung der Kompanie verschleiern.
        
        Einbeziehung von Hindernissen
        
        Hindernisse müssen bei der Planung von direktem und indirektem Feuer miteinbezogen werden. Durch Ablenkung und Behinderung der Feindbewegung gewähren Hindernisse dem Verteidiger die erforderliche Zeit zur Absatzbewegung und erlauben verbündeten Kräften direkte oder indirekte Feuer gegen den Feind einzusetzen. Die Position der Hindernisse hängt von den Faktoren der METT-TC-Analyse ab. Wichtig ist vor allem, dass das Hindernis den Feind weit genug auf Abstand hält, so dass er bekämpft werden kann, jedoch beim Feuern behindert wird oder außerhalb seiner Waffenreichweite gehalten wird.
        
        WITHDRAWAL
        
        5-132. The withdrawing unit establishes routes and develops plans for the withdrawal and then establishes a security force as the rear guard while the main body withdraws. Sustainment and mobility and protection elements normally withdraw first followed by combat forces. To deceive the enemy as to the friendly movement, battalion may establish a detachment left in contact (DLIC) if withdrawing under enemy pressure. As the unit withdraws, the DLIC disengages from the enemy and follows the main body to its final destination.
        
        5-133. Withdrawals are accomplished in three overlapping phases:
        
        • Preparation. The commander dispatches quartering parties, issues warning orders, and initiates planning. Nonessential vehicles are moved to the rear.
        
        • Disengagement. Designated elements begin movement to the rear. They break contact and conduct tactical movement to a designated assembly area or position.
        
        • Security. A security force protects and assists the other elements as they disengage or move to their new positions. This is done either by a DLIC, which the unit itself designates in an unassisted withdrawal, or by a security force provided by the higher headquarters in an assisted withdrawal. As necessary, the security force assumes responsibility for the AO, deceives the enemy, and protects the movement of disengaged elements by providing overwatch and suppressive fires. The weapons company can provides this overwatch force. In an assisted withdrawal, the security phase ends when the security force has assumed responsibility for the fight and the withdrawing element has completed its movement. In an unassisted withdrawal, this phase ends when the DLIC completes its disengagement and movement to the rear.
        
        5-134. In an unassisted battalion withdrawal, the DLIC may consist of an element from each company (under leadership of the company XO or a platoon leader), with the battalion S-3 as the overall DLIC commander. As an alternative, a company may serve as the DLIC for the rest of the battalion. The company commander has several deployment options. He can reposition elements across the entire battalion frontage. Another option is to position the company to cover only the most dangerous enemy avenues of approach; other avenues into the AO are covered with observation from additional security elements provided by the battalion such as the reconnaissance platoon.
        
        5-135. In an assisted battalion withdrawal, the higher headquarters will normally provide a security element to maintain contact with and deceive the enemy while the battalion conducts its withdrawal. The security force establishes defensive positions behind the withdrawing unit and conducts preparations for a rearward passage of lines. The withdrawing force disengages from the enemy and conducts the rearward passage through the security force to assembly areas in the rear.
    - - Sicherheit 360°
        
        ständige Überwachung (360°+Luftraum)
        
        gg. direktes Feuer
        
        gg. direktes Explosivfeuer
        
        gg. Luftfahrzeuge
        
        gg. indirektes Feuer
      - Bei Halt:
        
        Rundumsicherung
        
        mögliche Feuerkraft maximieren
        
        Tarnung Sicht/Geräusche maximieren
        
        evtl. Overwatch Element planen
        
        evtl. Einräuchern planen
      -  Air defense
        
        Passiv
        
        • Angriffsvermeidung
        
        -- vermeide Entdeckung durch Deckung, Tarnung, Täuschung, Kommunikationssicherheit, u.a.
        
        • Schadensbegrenzung
        
        -- Nutze Deckung um Waffenwirkung zu minimieren, z.B. Erdlöcher, Senken, Gebäude, (Sandsack-)Bunker
        
        -- Verteilung, besonders an Gefahrenstellen. Sobald ein Luftkontakt gemeldet wird, muss entschieden werden, ob man entdeckt wurde. Falls unentdeckt, sofort verteilen, in Deckung gehen und Bewegung einstellen. Bei Entdeckung sofort verteilen und schnell in bessere Deckung begeben. Motor abstellen zur IR-Tarnung.
        
        Aktiv
        
        bei Direktangriff:
        
        Raketen gg. langsame Ziele
        
        Schwere MGs und Kleinkaliber in Massen
        
        gelenkte Raketen nach Vorbeiflug
        
        Massives Feuer (mit viel Vorhalt) eröffnen um Angriff zu stören
        
        Schräg auf Ziel zu bewegen, um schwieriges Ziel zu bieten. Möglichst stark Verteilen.
        
        Schnell in Deckung begeben + anhalten um Entdeckung zu erschweren.
        
        Kontaktmeldung asap
      -  durch Kontrolle Friendly Fire vermeiden
      -  Safety first
      -  Erholungsphasen
      - DEFEND ON A REVERSE SLOPE
        
        5-83. An alternative to defending on the forward slope of a hill or a ridge is to defend on a reverse slope, Figure 5-3. In such a defense, the company is deployed on terrain that is masked from enemy direct fire and ground observation by the crest of a hill. Although some units and weapons may be positioned on the forward slope, the crest, or the counterslope (a forward slope of a hill to the rear of a reverse slope), most Infantry forces are on the reverse slope. However, weapons company units may be concentrated on the counterslope. The key to this defense is control of the crest by direct fire.
        
        Advantages
        
        • The crest protects the unit from direct fire. This is a distinct advantage if the attacker has greater weapons range and firepower than the defender. The reverse slope defense can eliminate or reduce the attacker’s standoff advantage. It also makes enemy adjustment of his indirect fire more difficult since he cannot see his rounds impact. It keeps the enemy's second echelon from supporting his first echelon's assault.
        
        • The enemy may be deceived and may advance to close contact before he discovers the defensive position. Therefore, the defender may gain the advantage of surprise.
        
        • The defender can improve positions, build obstacles, and clear fields of fire without disclosing the location of the positions.
        
        • The defender may use dummy positions on the forward slope to deceive the enemy.
        
        • Resupply and evacuation (when under attack) may be easier when defending on a reverse slope.
        
        • Enemy target acquisition and jamming efforts are degraded. Enemy radar, infrared sights, and thermal viewers cannot easily detect Soldiers masked by a hill. Radios with a hill between them and the enemy are less vulnerable to jamming and direction finders.
        
        • Enemy use of close air support and attack helicopters is restricted. Enemy aircraft must attack defensive positions from the flank or from the rear, which makes it easier for friendly air defense weapons to engage them.
        
        • A counterattacking unit has more freedom of maneuver since it is masked from the enemy's direct fire.
        
        Disadvantages
        
        • Observation of the enemy is more difficult. Soldiers in a reverse slope position can see forward no farther than the crest. This makes it hard to determine exactly where the enemy is as he advances, especially when visibility is poor. OPs should be placed forward of the topographic crest for early warning and long-range observation. Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) and remote sensors can also be used.
        
        • Egress from the position may be more difficult.
        
        • Fields of fire are normally short but fires to the flank can increase the range.
        
        • Obstacles on the forward slope can be covered only with indirect fire or by units on the flanks of the company unless some weapons systems are initially placed forward.
        
        • If the enemy gains the crest, he can assault downhill. This may give him a psychological advantage.
        
        • If observation posts are insufficient or improperly placed, the defenders may have to fight an enemy who suddenly appears in strength at close range.
        
        Feasibility
        
        • The forward slope has little cover and concealment.
        
        • The forward slope is untenable because of enemy fire.
        
        • The forward slope has been lost or not yet gained.
        
        • There are better fields of fire on the reverse slope.
        
        • It adds to the surprise and deception.
        
        • The enemy has more long-range weapons than the defender.
    - - Ziel: kollektiver und koordinierten Nutzen von synchronem, Unterdrückungs- und Artilleriefeuer durch Zielverarbeitung vor allem für Manöver.
      - Prinzipien
        
        Ziel der Kontrolle ist nicht Beschränkung sondern die schnellstmögliche Vernichtung des Gegners nach dem Motto "zuerst erfassen, zuerst schießen"
        
        • Feuerkonzentration
        
        Entscheidungsherbeiführung durch Konzentration auf kritische Punkte
        
        aber nicht auf einzelnes Ziel, sonst ist der Rest des Gegners nicht unterdrückt
        
        Koordination des Feuers von Manöver und Feuerschutzelementen
        
        Sicherstellen, dass möglichst viele Einheiten plötzlich+verteilt+simultan feuern können
        
        z.B. durch Zielreferenzpunkte, Angriffslinien
        
        Analyse von Zeit-Distanz-Faktoren zwischen Positionen um gefährdete Gebiete verstärken zu können
        
        • Zerstöre die größte Bedrohung als Erstes
        
        Gefahr abhängig von Bewaffnung, Reichweite, Positionierung
        
        mehrere Ziele? Feuer auf gefährlichstes Ziel konzentrieren, nach Zerstörung Feuer auf übrige Ziele verteilen
        
        Der Kommandant listet Ziele nach Priorität in Bezug auf Bedrohung für Einheit oder Missionsziel auf
        
        • Overkill vermeiden
        
        aber genug um Ziel zu zerstören (höchste Priorität)
        
        früheres Feuer auf nächstes Ziel möglich
        
        spart Munition
        
        • Die beste Waffe für das Ziel einsetzen
        
        Höhere Chance auf Zerstörung/Unterdrückung
        
        spart Munition
        
        abhängig von Zieltyp, Reichweite, Exponierung
        
        je nach Waffengattung evtl. andere Zielprioritätenliste
        
        z.B. Langstreckenraketen
        
        Ziele:
        
        gepanzerte KFZ
        
        Bunker
        
        Infanterie durch begrenzten Explosiveffekt
        
        Vorteil:
        
        Kann stärkste Panzerungen durchschlagen
        
        Kann evtl. schwache Panzerung von oben angreifen
        
        z.B. bei Javelin Fire-and-Forget
        
        Nachteil:
        
        begrenzter Vorrat
        
        starke Exponierung
        
        4 more items...
        
        lange Flugzeit
        
        Rückstrahlzone
        
        z.B. Granaten-MGs
        
        sehr effektiv gg. Infanterie
        
        effektiv gg. leicht gepanz. KFZ
        
        Unterdrückungsfeuer
        
        Markierungsfeuer
        
        begrenzte Munition
        
        ineffektiv gg. Panzerung
        
        • Exponierung freundlicher Einheiten begrenzen
        
        Höhere Überlebensfähigkeit durch minimalste Exponierung zur effektiven Bekämpfung
        
        Angriffszeit begrenzen
        
        beste Deckung bei direktem Großkaliberbeschuss in natürlichen/künstlichen Senken
        
        ständig nach effektiver Deckung Ausschau halten
        
        von der Flanke angreifen
        
        stark verteilen
        
        • Friendly-Fire Vermeidungsmaßnahmen planen/durchführen
        
        Risiko von FriendlyFire und Kolleteralschäden aktiv reduzieren
        
        Identifikationstrainings
        
        Waffen sichern
        
        ROE
        
        Freundliche Positionen bewusst machen
        
        • Plan für eingeschränkte Sicht Bedingungen
        
        dichter Nebel, Starkregen, Rauch, Sandstürme
        
        NVG
        
        IR (z.B. MX-2)
        
        evtl. kürzere Angriffsreichweite für Einzelziele
        
        evtl. Beleuchtung durch Artillerie
        
        • Auf nachlassende Kampfkraft einstellen
        
        maximale Leistungsfähigkeit bedenken
        
        Notfallplan bei Verwundeten/Ausfällen
        
        Redundanzen einkalkulieren
        
        z.B. überlappende Sektorüberwachung
        
        Alternative Feuerpositionen planen um Ausfälle zu ersetzen
        
        Ermüdungserscheinungen durch Entsatz/Tempowechsel vorbeugen/Rechnung tragen
      - Ablauf
        
        erfolgreiche direkte Feuer durch konstante Anwendung des 4-Schritt-Feuerkontrollprozesses
        
        • mögliche Feindpositionen erkennen und feindliche Manöver abschätzen
        
        • Bestimmen, wo und wie das Feuer konzentriert/verteilt wird
        
        • Richtungsangaben zur schnellen Zielerfassung
        
        • Feuer umverteilen, um gewünschtes Ergebnis zu erzielen
        
        schnelle, genaue Zielerfassung durch Entdeckung, Identifizierung, Lokalisierung
        
        konzentriertes Feuer => entscheidendes Ergebnis
        
        erst auf kritische Punkte
        
        dann optimale Verteilung
        
        Planung + Koordination zwischen den Kommandeuren ist Vorraussetzung für effektive Operation
      - Planungsgesichtspunkte
        
        Überblick
        
        Identifizierung möglicher/bekannter Feindpositionen
        
        Bestimmung von Kampfkraft-Fokuspunkten/gebieten nach Einschätzung möglicher Feindmanöver
        
        Feuerkonzentration
        
        TargetReferencePoints/Sektoren nummerieren zur schnelleren Orientierung + Kommunikation
        
        Feuerverteilung
        
        Zielprioritäten nach Zieltyp/Waffe zuordnen
        
        Zielgattung nach ähnlicher freundlicher Bewaffnung zuordnen
        
        Kräfte orientieren (Feuersektoren)
        
        Haupt- und Alternativ-Feuersektoren zuweisen
        
        9-20. A standard means of orienting friendly forces is to assign a primary direction of fire, using a TRP, to orient each element on a probable (or known) enemy position or likely avenue of approach. To provide all-round security, the SOP can supplement the primary direction of fire with sectors using a friendly-based quadrant. The following sample SOP elements show the use of these techniques.
        
        The front (center) platoon's primary direction of fire is TRP 2 (center) until otherwise specified; the platoon is responsible for the front two quadrants. The left flank platoon's primary direction of fire is TRP 1 (left) until otherwise specified; the platoon is responsible for the left two friendly quadrants (overlapping with the center platoon). The right flank platoon's primary direction of fire is TRP 3 (right) until otherwise specified; the platoon is responsible for the right two friendly quadrants (overlapping with the center platoon).
        
        Friendly Feuer vermeiden
        
        Kommunikation vor Manöver
        
        Identifizierungspflicht vor Feuererlaubnis
        
        Truppenmarkierung (Farben, IR, Rauchgranaten)
      - Feuerkontrolle
        
        Erfassung als Vorraussetzung für Direktfeuergefecht
        
        Feind benutzt auch Tarnung/Deckung/Flankenmanöver beim Angriff => Aufklärung planen
        
        Maßnahmen
        
        gefahrenbasierend
        
        Feuermuster
        
        Zielgattung
        
        Angriffspriorität
        
        Waffen bereit halten
        
        Waffen sichern
        
        Gefechtsmerkmale
        
        Rules of engagement (ROE)
        
        Gefechtstechniken
        
        geländebasierend
        
        Target reference point
        
        Gefechtsgebiet
        
        Sector of fire
        
        Direction of fire
        
        Terrain-based quadrant
        
        Friendly based quadrant
        
        Maximum engagement line
        
        Restrictive fire line
        
        Final protective line
      - COMMANDS
        
        9-25. Fire commands are oral orders issued by the commander and his subordinate leaders to focus and distribute fires as required to achieve the desired results against an enemy force. Fire commands allow leaders, in the already confusing environment of close combat, to articulate their firing instructions rapidly and concisely using a standard format. Unit fire commands include these elements:
        
        Alert
        
        9-26. The alert specifies the units that are directed to fire. It does not require the leader who initiates the command to identify himself. Examples of the alert element (call signs and code words based on unit SOP) include--
        
        GUIDONS (all subordinate elements)
        
        RED (1st platoon only)
        
        Weapon or Ammunition (Optional)
        
        9-27. This element identifies the weapon and ammunition to be employed by the alerted units. Leaders may designate the type and number of rounds to limit expenditure of ammunition. Examples of this element include--
        
        JAVELIN
        
        MACHINE GUN
        
        Target Description
        
        9-28. Target description designates which enemy forces are to be engaged. Leaders may use the description to focus fires or achieve distribution. Example target descriptions include--
        
        TROOPS IN TRENCH
        
        BUNKER
        
        PCs
        
        Orientation
        
        9-29. This element identifies the location of the target. The location of the target might be designated in any of several ways, for example--
        
        Closest TRP TRP 13
        
        Clock direction ONE O’CLOCK
        
        Terrain quadrant QUADRANT ONE
        
        Friendly quadrant LEFT FRONT
        
        Target array FRONT HALF
        
        Tracer on target ON MY TRACER
        
        Laser pointer ON MY POINTER
        
        Range (Optional)
        
        9-30. The range element identifies the distance to the target. Announcing range is not necessary for systems that have range finders or that employ command-guided or self-guided munitions. For systems that require manual range settings, leaders have a variety of means for determining range, including--
        
        Predetermined ranges to TRPs or phase lines.
        
        Handheld rangefinders.
        
        Range stadia.
        
        Mil reticles.
        
        Control (Optional)
        
        9-31. The company commander may use this optional element to direct desired target results, distribution methods, or engagement techniques. Subordinate leaders may include the control element to supplement the company commander's instructions and achieve effective distribution. Examples of information specified in the control element include--
        
        Target array - FRONT HALF
        
        Fire pattern –FRONTAL
        
        Terrain quadrant - QUADRANT 1
        
        Engagement priorities - M203 ENGAGE BUNKERS;
        
        MACHINE GUNS ENGAGE TROOPS
        
        Engagement technique – ALTERNATING
        
        Target effect - AREA
        
        Execution
        
        9-32. The execution element specifies when direct fires should be initiated. The company commander may engage immediately, delay initiation, or delegate authority to engage. Examples of this element include--
        
        FIRE
        
        AT MY COMMAND
        
        AT YOUR COMMANDAT PHASE LINE ORANGE
    - - Schlacht ist komplex, chaotisch, verwirrend
      - Vermeidung v. Missverständnissen
      - mangelhaften Informationen gegenwirken
      - Ermüdung vorbeugen
      - Streitigkeiten klären
    - - Transport
      - Nachschub
      - Instandhaltung
    - - effektive Koordination => Synergieeffekte (+Schutz +Manöverfähigkeit +Feuerkraft)
        
        Verdunklung des Schlachtfelds
      - gleicht Schwächen einer Einheit aus
        
        Beispiel:
        
        For example, commanders use artillery (fires) to suppress an enemy bunker complex pinning down an infantry unit (movement and maneuver). The infantry unit then closes with and destroys the enemy. In this example, the fires warfighting function complements the maneuver warfighting function. Reinforcing capabilities combine similar systems or capabilities within the same warfighting function to increase the function’s overall capabilities. In urban operations, for example, infantry, aviation, and armor (movement and maneuver) often operate close to each other. This combination reinforces the protection, maneuver, and direct fire capabilities of each. The infantry protects tanks from enemy infantry and antitank systems; tanks provide protection and firepower for the infantry. Attack helicopters maneuver freely above buildings to fire from positions of advantage, while other aircraft help sustain the ground elements. Together, these capabilities form a lethal team built on movement and maneuver. In another example, multiple artillery units routinely
        mass fires to support a committed artillery battalion (reinforcement). Joint capabilities—such as close air
        support and special operations forces—can complement or reinforce Army capabilities.
  - - - Immer wissen wo man sich im Gelände/auf der Karte befindet in Bezug auf ---
      - • Blickrichtung
      - • Richtung + Entfernung zum Missionsziel
      - • Geländebesonderheiten
      - • Unpassierbares Gelände, Feind, Gefahrengebiete
      - • Vor- und Nachteile des Geländes zwischen dir und dem Missionsziel
      - Kompetenzen: Karten lesen, Geländebesonderheiten erkennen, Marschgeschwindigkeit + Entfernungen einschätzen, Positionen per Rückwärtseinschneiden/Triangulation bestimmen
    - - Gute Route abhängig von Mission, taktischer Situation, Einheitengröße, Länge/Art der Bewegung, verfügbarer Zeit und Leichtigkeit von Bewegung + Navigation
      - • Reisedauer
      - • Distanz
      - • benötigter Raum für Manöver
      - • Durchquerbarkeit
      - • Untergrundfestigkeit
      - • Truppenerschöpfung
        
        A lost or a late arriving unit, or a tired unit that is tasked with an unnecessarily difficult move, does not contribute to the accomplishment of a mission. On the other hand, the unit that moves too quickly and carelessly into a destructive ambush or leaves itself open to air strikes also has little effect. Careful planning and study are required each time a movement route is to be selected.
      - • METT-TC-Faktoren
      - • Taktische Geländeaspekte (OCOKA).
      - • Einfachheit logistischer Unterstützung
      - • Überraschungspotential für Feind
      - • Vorhandensein von Kontroll- u. Koordinationsmerkmalen
      - • Vorhandensein gut erkennbarer checkpoints + Steuermarkierungen (vor allem Nachts!)
        
        The best checkpoints are linear features that cross the route. Examples include perennial streams, hard-top roads, ridges, valleys, railroads, and power transmission lines. Next, it is best to select features that represent elevation changes of at least two contour intervals such as hills, depressions, spurs, and draws. Primary reliance upon cultural features and vegetation is cautioned against because they are most likely to have changed since the map was last revised.
        
        Checkpoints located at places where changes in direction are made mark your decision points. Be especially alert to see and recognize these features during movement. During preparation and planning, it is especially important to review the route and anticipate where mistakes are most likely to be made so they can be avoided.
      - • Tarn-/Deckungsmöglichkeiten
        
        Following a valley floor or proceeding near (not on) the crest of a ridgeline generally offers easy movement, good navigation checkpoints, and sufficient cover and concealment. It is best to follow terrain features whenever you can—not to fight them.
    - - Realität ständig mit Plan vergleichen, vor allem Reihenfolge der Geländebesonderheiten/Checkpoints
      - Kompass überwachen (Compassman?)
    - - Ziel ist oft nicht leicht zu finden, z.B. Versteck in der Nähe
      - Deshalb evtl. Punktnavigation:
        
        Gut erkennbaren Checkpoint in der Nähe des Ziels auswählen
        
        vom letzten Checkpoint Kurs + Entfernung zum letzten Teilabschnitt bestimmen
    - - Typen
        
        sanft
        
        Höhenlinien gleichmäßig, weit auseinander
        
        => Defending Grazing fire
        
        steil
        
        Höhenlinien gleichmäßig, eing beieinander
        
        => Defending Grazing fire
        
        konkav
        
        oben eng, unten weit
        
        => Defending etwas Grazing fire, aber komplette Einsicht
        
        konvex
        
        oben weit, unten eng
        
        => nur teilweise einsehbar, gute Deckung, Steigung oben leichter
    - - 4-29. The weapons company commander carefully studies the battalion’s scheme of maneuver and selects tentative support and attack-by-fire positions throughout the battalion’s AO. He selects the best locations for those fire positions directed by battalion and selects others throughout the AO. He is especially careful in the selection of positions that support the capture of any intermediate and final objective. He also identifies positions that can cover any enemy avenues of approach into the battalions AO and fire positions to support the Infantry’s consolidation on the objective and positions to stop any counterattacks. The weapons company commander therefore selects positions to--
        
        • Comply with those directed in the battalion operation order OPORD or FRAGO.
        
        • Support the battalion’s movement through the AO.
        
        • Support the capture of intermediate and final objectives.
        
        • Cover any potential enemy avenues of approach into the battalion’s AO.
        
        • Support the Infantry’s consolidation on the objective(s).
        
        • Maximize standoff capabilities of the weapon system.
        
        • Stop any counterattacks.
        
        • Continue the attack.
      - 4-52. As the support by fire force, the weapons company occupies support by fire positions that afford effective cover and concealment, unobstructed observation, and clear fields of fire. Once it is in position, it has the responsibility both for placing the effects of direct fires on known enemy forces and for aggressively scanning assigned sectors of observation. In doing so, it identifies previously unknown enemy elements and then fires upon them. The protection provided by the support by fire force allows the assaulting force to continue its movement and to retain the initiative even when it is under enemy observation or within range of enemy weapons.
    - - Boden
        
        Rally Point (sammeln/Rückzug)
        
        Anfahrtsweg/Gegnerweg aufmalen
        
        Art
        
        KFZ
        
        Typ
        
        HMMV
        
        Sitzplätze
        
        Bewaffnung
        
        Panzerung
        
        Bradley
        
        Truck
        
        Konvoi? Battle Drills / ROE klären
        
        (per pedes falls nah)
        
        Battle Drills / ROE klären
        
        Formation
      - Luft
        
        Piloten finden
        
        Sitzplätze?
        
        Fähigkeit Pilot?
        
        EVAC klären
        
        Art
        
        LZ Heli
        
        Berg/MOUT: Schwebend? Seil?
        
        LZ markieren
        
        Sprung
        
        Ausrüstung
        
        Ausrüstung neu verteilen
        
        Fallschirm MC-5/T-10
        
        Schutzbrillen
        
        (DAGR)
        
        Absprunghöhe
        
        HAHO (MC-5)
        
        HALO HighAltitudeLowOpening (MC-5)
        
        LALO (T10)
        
        Rally Point festlegen
        
        Öffnungshöhe klären
        
        Markierung setzen
        
        (DAGR einstellen)
        
        Anflug planen
        
        Abwurfzone markieren
        
        Luftraumüberwacher einteilen
        
        "Aufsitzen!" "Letzter Mann!"
  - - -  Preparing and approving plans and orders.
        
        Plans and Orders 5-41. Plans and orders are key tools used by commanders in directing operations. Under mission command, commanders direct with mission orders. Mission orders is a technique for developing orders that emphasizes to subordinates the results to be attained, not how they are to achieve them. It provides maximum freedom of action in determining how to best accomplish assigned missions. Mission orders synchronize subordinates’ actions only as required for mission success. Constraints are appropriate when mission success requires closely synchronized action by multiple units. Even then, commanders establish constraints in a manner that least limits individual initiative. Commanders ensure that orders prepared by the staff follow the precepts of mission orders to facilitate decentralized execution and maximum flexibility of subordinates. 5-42. Generally, subordinate commanders exercise full freedom of action within the concept of operations and commander’s intent. Higher commanders may impose additional control over subordinates during a particular phase or mission. As soon as conditions allow, subordinates regain their freedom of action. Effective mission orders communicate to subordinates the situation, their commander’s intent and mission, and the important tasks of each unit. The commander’s intent and concept of operations set guidelines that ensure unity of effort while allowing subordinate commanders to exercise initiative. 5-43. Mission orders stress not only the tasks required of subordinates but also understanding their context and purpose. While clear direction is essential to accomplishing the mission, commanders strike a balance between necessary but minimum direction and overly detailed direction. Subordinates who act first (within the commander’s intent) and report later often achieve far more than those who delay action to wait for the commander’s confirmation.
      -  Assigning and adjusting missions, tasks, task organization, and control measures based on
      - changing conditions.
      -  Positioning units to maximize combat power, anticipate actions, or create or preserve maneuver
      - options.
      -  Positioning key leaders to ensure observation and supervision at critical times and places.
      -  Adjusting support priorities and allocating resources based on opportunities and threats.
      -  Accepting risk to create opportunities to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative.
      -  Establishing themes (and sometimes messages) for inform and influence activities.
      -  Committing reserves.
      - Commander’s Intent
        5-44. The commander’s intent is a clear, concise statement of what the force must do and the
        conditions the force must establish with respect to the enemy, terrain, and civil considerations that
        represent the desired end state. The commander’s intent succinctly describes what constitutes success in
        an operation. It includes the operation’s purpose and only the most important conditions that define the end
        state. It links the mission, concept of operations, and tasks to subordinate units. A clear commander’s intent
        facilitates a shared understanding and focus on the overall conditions that represent mission
        accomplishment. During execution, the commander’s intent spurs individual initiative.
        5-45. Soldiers two echelons down must easily remember and clearly understand the commander’s intent.
        The shorter the commander’s intent, the better it serves these purposes. Typically, the commander’s intent
        consists of three to five sentences. Commanders formulate and communicate their commander’s intent to
        describe the boundaries within which subordinates may exercise initiative while maintaining unity of effort.
        To avoid limiting subordinates’ freedom of action, commanders place only minimum constraints for
        coordination on them.
        5-46. Commanders develop their intent statement. The commander’s intent, coupled with mission, directs
        subordinates toward mission accomplishment, especially when current orders no longer fit the situation and
        subordinates must decide how to deviate from them. Subordinate leaders, empowered with authority and a
        clear understanding of the commander’s intent and concept, develop the situation, adapt, and act decisively
        under fluid, dynamic conditions.
      - 5-48. The decisive operation is the operation that directly accomplishes the mission. It determines the outcome of a major operation, battle, or engagement. The decisive operation is the focal point around which commanders design the entire operation.
      - 5-50. A shaping operation is an operation at any echelon that creates and preserves conditions for the success of the decisive operation.
      - 5-52. A sustaining operation is an operation at any echelon that enables the decisive operation or shaping operations by generating and maintaining combat power.
      - The main effort is the designated subordinate unit whose mission at a given point in time is most critical to overall mission success. It is usually weighted with the preponderance of combat power.
      - Lead 5-55. After commanders make decisions, they lead their forces throughout execution. During execution, commanders provide the strength of character, moral courage, and will to follow through with their decisions. When changing decisions, they must know when and what to decide, and when to make other decisions that address changes in the situation. (FM 6-22 discusses leadership actions during execution. Chapter 4 discusses leadership and combat power.) 5-56. Effective leaders have physical presence. Commanders carefully consider where they need to be, balancing the need to inspire Soldiers with that of maintaining an overall perspective of the entire operation. The commander’s forward presence demonstrates a willingness to share danger. It also allows them to appraise for themselves the subordinate unit’s condition, including leader and Soldier morale. Forward presence allows commanders to sense the human dimension of conflict, particularly when fear and fatigue reduce effectiveness. Then commanders need to lead by example, side-by-side with Soldiers. Commanders cannot let the perceived advantages of improved information technology compromise their obligation to lead by example. 5-57. The commander’s will is the one constant that propels the force through the shock and friction of battle. Friction is inherent in all operations. Inevitably, things can and will go wrong. The ability of leaders and Soldiers to concentrate erodes as they reach the limit of their endurance. Against a skilled and resolute enemy, Soldiers may approach that point when fear, uncertainty, and physical exhaustion dominate their thinking. At this point, the commander’s strength of will and personal presence provides the moral impetus for actions that lead to victory.
      - *Assess 5-58. Assessment helps commanders to better understand current conditions and determine how the operation is progressing. The commander maintains overall perspective, comparing the current situation to the one originally envisioned. This requires critical thinking, inspired when possible, by the commander’s participation in design. The information that commanders receive from subordinates often shapes how commanders identify, frame, and seek to solve a problem. Commanders use this information to develop indicators to determine progress toward a successful outcome. These indicators may take the form of intermediate objectives that units must accomplish to achieve a desired end state. 5-59. The commander assesses the overall progress against the conditions extant, always asking whether the mission and commander’s intent still apply. When assessment reveals a significant variance from the commander’s original visualization, commanders reframe the problem and develop an entirely new plan as required. The staff assessment guides how to exercise control and regulate subordinate activities. Mission command requires that staff officers balance their judgment with the subordinate commanders’ perspective; assessing progress against their commander’s intent first, and then existing control measures.
      - 5-62. By circulating among subordinate units, commanders can assess subordinates’ preparation and execution, get to know new units in the task organization, and personally motivate Soldiers. By personally briefing subordinates, commanders gain firsthand appreciation for the situation as well as ensuring subordinate leaders and Soldiers understand the commander’s intent. Commanders lead, coach, and mentor subordinate leaders. This assists in establishing close relationships that foster trust and mutual confidence. A subordinate’s understanding of the commander’s intent, provided through clear and succinct mission orders, drives successful mission command.
    - - Tasks
        
         Conduct the operations process: plan, prepare, execute, and assess.
        
        6-5. The operations process consists of the major mission command activities performed during operations: planning, preparing, executing, and continuously assessing the operation. The commander drives the operations process through leadership. Commanders may perform the activities
        of the operations process sequentially or simultaneously. These activities are usually not discrete; they
        overlap and recur as circumstances demand. Commanders use the operations process to help them decide
        when and where to make decisions, control operations, and provide command presence. (See FM 5-0 for a
        detailed discussion on the operations process.)
        
        6-6. *Planning, to include design, is synchronized. Throughout the operations process, commanders synchronize forces and warfighting functions to accomplish missions. Synchronization enables units to achieve synergic effects. For example, units must synchronize delivery of fires with target acquisition to produce the desired effects. However, synchronization is not an end in itself. It is useful only as it contributes to the greater effectiveness of the force. Unnecessary synchronization or synchronization for limited gains degrades tempo, impedes initiative, and allows the enemy to act within the friendly force decision process. Excessive synchronization undermines mission command.
        
        6-7. Both design and the military decisionmaking process (MDMP) assist commanders and staffs with the conceptual aspects of planning. Commanders and staffs use design with the MDMP and troop leading procedures to integrate activities during planning. They also develop additional procedures and processes for executing control. Paragraphs 6-32 through 6-73 discuss this support in detail.
        
        PLAN
        
        6-8. *Planning is the process by which commanders (and the staff, if available) translate the commander’s visualization into a specific course of action for preparation and execution, focusing on the expected results. Planning begins with analysis and assessment of the conditions in the operational environment, with particular emphasis on the enemy, to determine the relationships among the mission variables. It involves understanding and framing the problem and envisioning the set of conditions that represent the desired end state. Design and the MDMP assist commanders and staffs with the conceptual aspects of planning. Based on the commander’s guidance, planning includes formulating one or more supportable courses of action to accomplish the mission. Good plans foster initiative, account for uncertainty and friction, and mitigate risks.
        
        6-9. Commanders and staffs consider the consequences and implications of each course of action. Once the commander selects a course of action, the staff formulates specified tasks to subordinates, required staff actions, and an assessment framework. Planning develops the detailed information required during execution. Examples include setting initial conditions, assigning command relationships, and establishing priorities. Planning does not cease with production of a plan or order. It continues throughout an operation as the order is refined based on changes in the situation. In addition, staffs refine plans for branches and sequels during an operation.
        
        6-10. Whenever possible, commanders employ red teams to examine plans from an opponent’s perspective. Red teams provide insight into possible flaws in the plan as well as potential reactions by the enemy and other people in the area of operations. This insight helps the staff improve the plan and develop more effective branches and sequels.
        
        6-11. The scope, complexity, and length of planning horizons differ at the operational and tactical levels. At the operational level, campaign planning coordinates major actions across significant periods. Planners integrate Service capabilities with those of joint, interagency, intergovernmental, and multinational organizations. (JP 5-0 contains doctrine for joint operation planning.) Tactical planning has the same clarity of purpose but typically reflects a shorter planning horizon. Comprehensive, continuous, and adaptive planning characterizes successful operations at both levels.
        
        6-12. The Army uses three doctrinal planning procedures to integrate activities during planning: design, the MDMP, and troop leading procedures. Upon receipt of a mission, commanders may begin design to understand the operational environment, frame the problem, and develop an operational approach to solve the problem. The design concept serves as the foundation for more detailed planning, including the production of plans and orders using the MDMP. In units with a formally organized staff, the MDMP provides structure to help commanders and staffs develop running estimates, plans, and orders. It provides a logical sequence for decisionmaking and interaction between the commander and staff, and it provides a common framework for parallel planning. At the lowest tactical echelons, commanders and leaders follow troop leading procedures. Design, the MDMP, and troop leading procedures hinge on the commander’s ability to visualize and describe the operation. They are means to an end; their inherent value lies in the results achieved, not the process. (FM 5-0 discusses design, the MDMP, and troop leading procedures.)
        
        6-13. Planning continues as necessary during preparation and execution. When circumstances are not suited for the MDMP or troop leading procedures, commanders rely on design, intuitive decisionmaking, and direct contact with subordinate commanders to integrate activities.
        
        PREPARE
        
        6-14. Preparation consists of activities performed by units to improve their ability to execute an operation. Preparation includes, but is not limited to, plan refinement; rehearsals; intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance; coordination; inspections; and movement. Preparation establishes conditions that improve friendly forces’ opportunities for success. It facilitates and sustains transitions, including those to branches and sequels.
        
        6-15. Preparation requires staff, unit, and Soldier actions. Mission success depends on preparation as much as on planning. Rehearsals help staffs, units, and Soldiers to better understand their roles in upcoming operations, practice complicated tasks, and ensure equipment and weapons function properly. Activities specific to preparation include—
        
         Revision and refinement of the plan.
        
         Rehearsals.
        
         Force tailoring and task-organizing.
        
         Surveillance and reconnaissance.
        
         Training.
        
         Troop movements.
        
         Precombat checks and inspections.
        
         Sustainment preparations.
        
         Integration of new Soldiers and units.
        
         Subordinate confirmation briefs and backbriefs.
        
        6-16. Several preparation activities begin during planning and continue throughout execution. For example, uncommitted forces prepare for contingencies identified in branches and subsequent events detailed in sequels. Committed units revert to preparation when they accomplish their objectives, occupy defensive positions, or pass into reserve
        
        EXECUTE
        
        6-17. Execution is putting a plan into action by applying combat power to accomplish the mission and using situational understanding to assess progress and make execution and adjustment decisions. It focuses on concerted action to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative. Army forces seize the initiative immediately and dictate tempo throughout all operations.
        
        6-18. Commanders use mission command to achieve maximum flexibility and foster individual initiative. Subordinates exercising their initiative can significantly increase the tempo of operations; however, this may desynchronize the overall operation. Desynchronization may reduce commanders’ abilities to mass the effects of combat power. Executing even relatively minor, planned actions produces second- and thirdorder effects throughout the force; these affect the operation’s overall synchronization. Nonetheless, under mission command, commanders accept some risk of desynchronization as the price of seizing, retaining, and exploiting the initiative.
        
        6-19. The commander’s intent and mission orders focus every echelon on executing the concept of operations. Mission command enables and prompts collaborative synchronization among subordinates. When subordinates exploit opportunities, individual initiative resynchronizes the overall operation continuously. Subordinates’ success may offer opportunities anticipated in the concept of operations or develop advantages that make a new concept practical. In either case, the commander’s intent keeps the force focused and synchronized. Subordinates need not wait for top-down synchronization. The climate fostered by mission command encourages subordinates to act on information about the enemy, adversaries, events, and trends without detailed direction.
        
        6-20. As commanders assess the operation, they determine when to make decisions. Orders usually identify some decision points; however, unanticipated enemy actions or conditions often present situations that require unanticipated decisions. Commanders act when decisions are required. They do not wait for a set time in the battle rhythm.
        
        6-21. During execution, commanders draw on experience, intellect, creativity, intuition, and education to make rapid decisions. They learn deliberately as the situation develops and make changes based on that learning. Staffs synchronize or resynchronize forces and warfighting functions more quickly during execution than during planning and preparation. They must do this while forces are moving and processes are ongoing.
        
        6-22. During execution, commanders incorporate considerations for the operation’s next phase or sequel. They begin to visualize how to transition from the current operation to the next one. Based on their visualization, commanders direct actions to posture the force for the transition. As they visualize the implications of events and their solutions, commanders describe their conclusions to staff and subordinates through updated commander’s critical information requirements and planning guidance. The guidance may be to develop a branch or change the main effort to exploit success. Commanders direct adjustments when necessary, primarily through fragmentary orders.
        
        ASSESS
        
        6-23. Assessment refers to the continuous monitoring and evaluation of the current situation, particularly the enemy, and progress of an operation. Assessment precedes and guides every operations process activity and concludes each operation or phase of an operation. It involves a comparison of forecasted outcomes to actual events. Assessment entails three tasks:
        
         Continuously assess the enemy’s reactions and vulnerabilities.
        
         Continuously monitor the situation and progress of the operation towards the commander’s
        
        desired end state.
        
         Evaluate the operation against measures of effectiveness and measures of performance.
        
        6-24. Staffs monitor the current situation for unanticipated successes, failures, or enemy actions. As commanders and staffs assess the operation, they look for opportunities, threats, and acceptable progress. They accept risks, seize opportunities, and mitigate threats. Throughout the operation, commanders visualize, describe, and direct changes to the operation.
        
        6-25. A measure of performance is a criterion used to assess friendly actions that is tied to measuring task accomplishment (JP 3-0). Measures of performance answer the question, “Was the task or action performed as the commander intended?” A measure of performance confirms or denies that a unit has performed a task properly.
        
        6-26. A measure of effectiveness is a criterion used to assess changes in system behavior, capability, or operational environment that is tied to measuring the attainment of an end state, achievement of an objective, or creation of an effect (JP 3-0). Measures of effectiveness focus on the results or consequences of actions taken. They answer the question, “Is the force doing the right things, or are additional or alternative actions required?” A measure of effectiveness provides a benchmark against which the commander assesses progress toward accomplishing the mission.
        
        6-27. Staffs analyze the current situation using mission variables and prepare their running estimates. A running estimate is the continuous assessment of the current situation used to determine if the current operation is proceeding according to the commander’s intent and if planned future operations are supportable (FM 5-0). Staffs continuously assess how new information might impact conducting operations. They update running estimates and determine if adjustments to the operation are required. Commanders empower their staffs to make adjustments within their areas of expertise. This requires staffs to understand the aspects of operations that require the commander’s attention as opposed to those delegated to their control.
        
        6-28. Commanders integrate their own assessments and those of subordinate commanders into all aspects of the operations process. Assessment helps commanders refine their situational understanding. It allows them to make informed, rational decisions throughout the entire operation. During planning, assessment focuses on understanding the current conditions in the operational environment and developing relevant
        courses of action. During preparation and execution, it emphasizes evaluating progress toward the desired
        end state, determining variances from expectations, and determining the significance (threat or opportunity)
        of those variances.
        
        6-29. Planners primarily use the common operational picture, observations of commanders, and running estimates for assessing the operation against the concept of operations, mission, and commander’s intent. The commander’s visualization forms the basis of the commander’s personal decisionmaking methodology throughout the operation. Running estimates provide information, conclusions, and recommendations from the perspective of each staff section. They help to refine the common operational picture and supplement it with information not readily displayed.
        
        6-30. During assessment, commanders may decide to reframe after realizing the desired conditions have changed, are not achievable, or cannot be attained through the current operational approach. Reframing provides the freedom to operate beyond the limits of any single perspective. Conditions change during execution. Commanders and staff expect such change because forces interact within the operational environment. Recognizing and anticipating these changes is fundamental to design and essential to an organization’s ability to learn.
        
        6-31. Commanders avoid excessive analysis when assessing operations. Committing valuable time and energy to developing elaborate and time-consuming assessments squanders resources better devoted to other operations process activities. Effective commanders avoid burdening subordinates and staffs with overly detailed assessment and collection tasks. Generally, the echelon at which a specific operation, task, or action is conducted should be the echelon at which it is assessed. This provides a focus for assessment at each echelon. It enhances the efficiency of the overall operations process.
        
         Conduct knowledge management and information management.
        
         Conduct inform and influence and cyber/electromagnetic activities.
      - SUPPORT TO THE OPERATIONS PROCESS
        
        6-32. Throughout the operations process, commanders and staff develop additional procedures and processes for executing control. They may execute these simultaneously. Commanders and staff also produce products that provide enough control to ensure subordinates execute within the commander’s intent.
        
        Integrating Processes 6-33. Certain integrating processes occur during all operations process activities (see figure 6-1, page 6-6). Commanders synchronize these processes with each other and integrate them into the overall operation:
        
         Intelligence preparation of the battlefield. (For joint and functional component commanders, this
        
        is intelligence preparation of the operational environment. See JP 2-0.)
        
         Targeting. (See FM 3-60.)
        
         Intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance synchronization.
        
         Composite risk management. (See FM 5-19.)
        
         Knowledge management.
        
        Continuing Activities 6-34. The following activities continue during all operations process activities. Commanders synchronize these activities with one another and integrate them into the overall operation:
        
         Intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance.
        
         Security operations.
        
         Protection.
        
         Liaison and coordination.
        
         Terrain management.
        
         Information management.
        
         Airspace command and control.
        
        6-41. Agile and adaptive Soldiers are the single most important element of any mission command system. Their actions and responses—everything from fire and maneuver techniques to the disciplined observation of rules of engagement—control operations. Soldiers also assist commanders and exercise control on their behalf. Staffs perform many functions that help commanders exercise mission command:
        
         Provide relevant information and analysis.
        
         Maintain running estimates and make recommendations.
        
         Prepare plans and orders.
        
         Monitor operations.
        
         Control operations.
        
         Assess the progress of operations.
      - Operational Art
        
        Using operational art, commanders frame their concept by answering several fundamental questions:
        
         What is the force trying to accomplish (ends)?
        
         What conditions, when established, constitute the desired end state (ends)?
        
         How will the force achieve the end state (ways)?
        
        A center of gravity is the source of power that provides moral or physical strength, freedom of action, or will to act (JP 3-0). This definition states in modern terms the classic description offered by Clausewitz: “the hub of all power and movement, on which everything depends.”3
        
        DIRECT OR INDIRECT APPROACH
        
        7-33. The approach is the manner in which a commander contends with a center of gravity. The direct approach is the manner in which a commander attacks the enemy’s center of gravity or principal strength by applying combat power directly against it. However, centers of gravity are generally well protected and not vulnerable to a direct approach. Thus, commanders usually choose an indirect approach. The indirect approach is the manner in which a commander attacks the enemy’s center of gravity by applying combat power against a series of decisive points while avoiding enemy strength. Both approaches use specific combinations of defeat or stability mechanisms depending on the
        mission. Whether direct or indirect, an effective operational approach achieves decisive results through
        combinations of defeat and stability mechanisms. As commanders and staffs frame the problem, they
        determine the appropriate combination of defeat or stability mechanisms to solve it. This begins the process
        that ends with the plan for an operation that achieves the desired end state.
        
         What sequence of actions is most likely to attain these conditions (ways)?
        
        SIMULTANEITY AND DEPTH 7-74. Simultaneity and depth extend operations in time and space. Simultaneity has two components. Both depend on depth to attain lasting effects and maximum synergy. Simultaneous combinations of offensive, defensive, and stability tasks overwhelm enemy forces and their will to resist while setting the conditions for a lasting, stable peace. Simultaneous actions across the depth of the operational area place more demands on enemy forces than enemy forces can effectively respond to them. Operations combining depth and simultaneity achieve a synergy that paralyzes enemy forces. This prevents them from reacting appropriately, inducing their early culmination. Similarly, stability or civil support tasks—executed in depth with simultaneous defensive and offensive tasks when necessary—establish control of the situation throughout the operational area. 7-75. Simultaneity also refers to the concurrent effects operations produce at the tactical, operational, and strategic levels. Tactical commanders fight the battles and engagements that accomplish objectives in accordance with the operational commander’s intent. Operational commanders set the conditions for tactical success in battles within a campaign or major operation. These victories, in turn, create the conditions that define the end state. Because of the complex interaction among the levels of war, commanders cannot be concerned only with events at their respective echelon. Success requires them to understand how their actions affect the operations of commanders at all other echelons.
        
        Phasing
        
        7-79. A phase is a planning and execution tool used to divide an operation in duration or activity. A change in phase usually involves a change of mission, task organization, or rules of engagement. Phasing helps in planning and controlling and may be indicated by time, distance, terrain, or an event.
        
        7-81. Simultaneity, depth, and tempo are vital to full spectrum operations. However, they cannot always be attained to the degree desired. In such cases, commanders limit the number of objectives and decisive points engaged simultaneously. They deliberately sequence certain actions to maintain tempo while focusing combat power at the decisive point in time and space. Commanders combine simultaneous and sequential operations to establish the end state conditions.
        
        7-82. Phasing can extend operational reach. Only when the force lacks the capability to accomplish the mission in a single action do commanders phase the operation. Each phase should strive to—
        
         Focus effort.
        
         Concentrate combat power in time and space at a decisive point.
        
         Deliberately and logically accomplish its objectives.
        
         What resources are required, and how can they be applied to accomplish that sequence of actions
        
        (means)?
        
         What risks are associated with that sequence of actions, and how can they be mitigated (risk)?
        
        CULMINATION
        
        7-85. The culminating point is that point in time and space at which a force no longer possesses the capability to continue its current form of operations. Culmination represents a decisive shift in relative combat power. It is relevant to both attackers and defenders at each level of war. In the offense, the culminating point occurs when the force cannot continue the attack and must assume a defensive posture or execute an operational pause. In the defense, it occurs when the force can no longer defend itself and must withdraw or risk destruction.
        
        7-86. With stability, the culminating point is more difficult to identify. Three conditions can result in culmination:
        
         Being too dispersed to adequately control the situation.
        
         Being unable to provide the necessary security.
        
         Lacking required resources.
        
        RISK
        
        7-89. Risk, uncertainty, and chance are inherent in all military operations. When commanders accept risk, they create opportunities to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative and achieve decisive results. Risk is a potent catalyst that fuels opportunity. The willingness to incur risk is often the key to exposing enemy weaknesses that the enemy considers beyond friendly reach. Understanding risk requires calculated assessments coupled with boldness and imagination. Successful commanders assess and mitigate risk continuously throughout the operations process.
        
        7-90. Inadequate planning and preparation recklessly risks forces. It is equally rash to delay action while waiting for perfect intelligence and synchronization. Reasonably estimating and intentionally accepting risk is fundamental to conducting operations and essential to mission command. Successfully applying military force requires commanders who assess the risks, analyze and minimize the hazards, and execute a plan that accounts for those hazards. Experienced commanders balance audacity and imagination with risk and uncertainty to strike at a time and place and in a manner wholly unexpected by enemy forces. This is the essence of surprise. It results from carefully considering and accepting risk. (FMs 3-90 and 6-0 discuss tactical risk.)
        
        7-91. Operational art balances risk and opportunity to create and maintain the conditions necessary to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative and achieve decisive results. During execution, opportunity is fleeting. The surest means to create opportunity is to accept risk while minimizing hazards to friendly forces. A good operational approach considers risk and uncertainty equally with friction and chance. The final plans and orders then provide the flexibility commanders need to take advantage of opportunity in complex, dynamic environments.
        
        7-66. Endurance refers to the ability to employ combat power anywhere for protracted periods. It stems from the ability to create, protect, and sustain a force, regardless of the distance from its base and the austerity of the environment. Endurance involves anticipating requirements and making the most effective, efficient use of available resources. Their endurance gives Army forces their campaign capability. It makes permanent the changing effects of other capabilities.
        
        7-67. Momentum comes from seizing the initiative and executing high-tempo operations that overwhelm enemy resistance. Commanders control momentum by maintaining focus and pressure. They set a tempo that prevents exhaustion and maintains sustainment. A sustainable tempo extends operational reach. Commanders maintain momentum by anticipating and transitioning rapidly between primary tasks or— when necessary—the elements of full spectrum operations. Sometimes commanders push the force to its culminating point to take maximum advantage of an opportunity. For example, exploitations and pursuits often involve pushing all available forces to the limit of their endurance to capitalize on momentum and retain the initiative.
        
        7-68. Protection is an important contributor to operational reach. Commanders anticipate how enemy actions might disrupt operations and then determine the protection capabilities required to maintain sufficient reach. Protection closely relates to endurance and momentum. It also contributes to the commander’s ability to extend operations in time and space. The protection warfighting function helps
        commanders maintain the deploying force’s integrity and combat power.
        
        7-69. An operational pause is a deliberate halt taken to extend operational reach or prevent culmination. Commanders may execute an operational pause for several reasons. These may include the force being close to culmination, the decisive operation failing, or the end state changing. In planning an operation, commanders carefully balance initiative, momentum, reach, and culmination to avoid unnecessary operational pauses. In protracted operations, however, they may have to execute operational pauses to extend operational reach. Commanders carefully plan, prepare for, and execute these pauses to prevent losing the initiative. During an operational pause, commanders retain the initiative by using shaping operations to keep pressure on enemy forces. These shaping operations confuse the enemy while friendly forces generate combat power for the decisive operation.
        
        7-71. Tempo is the relative speed and rhythm of military operations over time with respect to the enemy. It reflects the rate of military action. Controlling tempo helps commanders keep the initiative during combat operations or rapidly establish a sense of normalcy during humanitarian crises. During operations dominated by the offense and defense, commanders normally seek to maintain a higher tempo than the enemy; rapid tempo can overwhelm an enemy’s ability to counter friendly actions.
        
        7-72. Commanders control tempo throughout the conduct of operations. First, they formulate operations that stress the complementary and reinforcing effects of simultaneous and sequential operations. They synchronize those operations in time and space to degrade enemy capabilities throughout the operational area. Second, commanders avoid unnecessary engagements. This practice includes bypassing resistance that appears at times and places commanders do not consider decisive. Third, through mission command they enable subordinates to exercise initiative and act independently. Controlling tempo requires both audacity and patience: audacity initiates the actions needed to develop a situation; patience allows a situation to develop until the force can strike at the decisive time and place. Ultimately, the goal is maintaining a tempo appropriate to retaining the initiative and achieving the end state.
        
        SUMMARY
        
        7-92. Operational art is a cognitive aspect of operations supported by design. While the character of conflict changes with time, the violent and chaotic nature of warfare does not. The essence of military art remains timeless. Operational art—the creative expression of informed vision to integrate ends, ways, and means across the levels of war—is fundamental to the Army’s ability to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative.
  - - - Direct every military operation toward a clearly defined, decisive, and attainable objective. A-1. The principle of objective drives all military activity. At the operational and tactical levels, objective ensures all actions contribute to the higher commander’s end state. When undertaking any mission, commanders should clearly understand the expected outcome and its impact. Combat power is limited; commanders never have enough to address every aspect of the situation. Objectives allow commanders to focus combat power on the most important tasks. Clearly stated objectives also promote individual initiative. These objectives clarify what subordinates need to accomplish by emphasizing the outcome rather than the method. Commanders should avoid actions that do not contribute directly to achieving the objectives. A-2. The purpose of military operations is to accomplish the military objectives that support achieving the conflict’s overall political goals. In offensive and defensive operations, this involves destroying the enemy and his will to fight. The objective of stability or civil support operations may be more difficult to define; nonetheless, it too must be clear from the beginning. Objectives must contribute to the operation’s purpose directly, quickly, and economically. Each tactical operation must contribute to achieving operational and strategic objectives. A-3. Military leaders cannot dissociate objective from the related joint principles of restraint and legitimacy, particularly in stability operations. The amount of force used to obtain the objective must be prudent and appropriate to strategic aims. Means used to accomplish the military objective must not undermine the local population’s willing acceptance of a lawfully constituted government. Without restraint or legitimacy, support for military action deteriorates, and the objective becomes unobtainable.
    - - Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative. A-4. As a principle of war, offensive is synonymous with initiative. The surest way to achieve decisive results is to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative. Seizing the initiative dictates the nature, scope, and tempo of an operation. Seizing the initiative compels an enemy to react. Commanders use initiative to impose their will on an enemy or adversary or to control a situation. Seizing, retaining, and exploiting the initiative are all essential to maintain the freedom of action necessary to achieve success and exploit vulnerabilities. It helps commanders respond effectively to rapidly changing situations and unexpected developments. Appendix A A-2 FM 3-0 27 February 2008 A-5. In combat operations, offensive action is the most effective and decisive way to achieve a clearly defined objective. Offensive operations are the means by which a military force seizes and holds the initiative while maintaining freedom of action and achieving decisive results. The importance of offensive action is fundamentally true across all levels of war. Defensive operations shape for offensive operations by economizing forces and creating conditions suitable for counterattacks.
      - TYPEN
        
        MOVEMENT TO CONTACT
        
        4-8. Movement to contact is a type of offensive operation designed to develop the situation and establish or regain contact. The commander conducts a movement to contact (MTC) when the enemy situation is vague or not specific enough to conduct an attack. Because the enemy situation is vague, the weapons company may have one or more of its platoons attached to other units within the battalion. The weapons company may also be used in support of or in concert with the scouts to find the enemy. The weapons company also has the ability to fix the enemy once contact has been made and can guide Infantry units into an engagement.
        
        ATTACK
        
        4-9. An attack is an offensive operation that destroys or defeats enemy forces, seizes and secures terrain, or both. Movement, supported by fires, characterizes the conduct of an attack. However, the commander may decide to conduct an attack using only fires. An attack differs from a MTC because enemy main body dispositions are at least partially known, which allows the commander to achieve greater synchronization. This enables him to mass the effects of the attacking force’s combat power more effectively in an attack than in a MTC. Special-purpose attacks are ambush, spoiling attack, counterattack, raid, feint, and demonstration. In planning attacks, the weapons company may be used to--
        
        • Suppress the enemy on an objective.
        
        • Isolate the objective.
        
        • Exploit the point of penetration and continue the attack deeper.
        
        • Conduct a feint or demonstration (deception).
        
        • Secure lines of communication.
        
        • Conduct a raid using its direct fire weapons.
        
        • Establish blocking positions by ground maneuver or air lift to destroy or canalize the enemy.
        
        In the attack, the company maneuvers along the lines of least resistance using the terrain for cover and concealment. This indirect approach affords the best chance to achieve surprise on the enemy force. All attacks, whether hasty or deliberate, depend on synchronization for success. They require planning, coordination, and time to prepare.
        
        HASTY ATTACK
        
        4-38. A hasty attack is used to--
        
        • Maintain momentum.
        
        • Exploit a tactical opportunity.
        
        • Regain the initiative.
        
        • Prevent the enemy from regaining organization or balance.
        
        • Gain a favorable position that may be lost with time.
        
        4-39. Because its primary purpose is to maintain momentum or take advantage of the enemy situation, the hasty attack is normally conducted with only the resources that are immediately available. Maintaining unrelenting pressure through hasty attacks keeps the enemy off balance and makes it difficult for him to react effectively. Rapidly attacking before the enemy can act often results in success even when the combat power ratio is not as favorable as desired. With its emphasis on agility and surprise, however, this type of attack may cause the attacking force to lose a degree of synchronization. To minimize this risk, the commander should maximize use of standard formations and well-rehearsed and thoroughly understood battle drills and SOPs. By maintaining situational understanding and assigning on-order and be-prepared missions to subordinate units as the situation warrants, the weapons company is better able to transition into hasty attacks. The hasty attack is often the preferred option during continuous operations. It allows the commander to maintain the momentum of friendly operations while denying the enemy the time needed to prepare his defenses and to recover from losses suffered during previous action. Hasty attacks normally result from a movement to contact, successful defense, or continuation of a previous attack. The weapons company, with its inherent speed and firepower, can move quickly into firing positions to support the Infantry attack. It can also isolate the objective from attack-by-fire positions.
        
        DELIBERATE ATTACK
        
        4-40. The weapons company typically will conduct a deliberate attack as part of a larger force. It often conducts a deliberate attack by itself when it has an attack-by-fire mission or has been task organized with Infantry units. Deliberate attacks follow a distinct period of preparation, which is used for extensive intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) operations, detailed planning, task organization of forces, fires planning, preparation of troops and equipment, coordination, rehearsals, and plan refinement. The deliberate attack is a fully synchronized operation that employs every available asset against the defending enemy. It is characterized by a high volume of planned fires (direct and indirect), use of major supporting attacks, forward positioning of resources needed to maintain momentum, and operations throughout the depth of enemy positions. Thorough preparation allows the attacking force to stage a combined-arms and fully integrated attack. Likewise, however, the enemy will have more time to prepare his defensive positions and integrate fires and obstacles. The factors of METT-TC dictate how thoroughly these activities are accomplished.
        
        4-41. The weapons company commander plans for the commitment of his company in compliance with battalion orders. He conducts a METT-TC analysis, gives his order, and prepares for the attack. The following are some of the tasks that are done by the commander and his primary subordinates, the executive officer and the first sergeant, prior to a successful deliberate attack:
        
        • Develops his scheme of maneuver and fire plan.
        
        • Briefs his platoon leaders.
        
        • Conducts rock drills and briefbacks to ensure subordinates understand their missions.
        
        • Coordinates indirect fires with the fire support officer.
        
        • Coordinates with the Infantry company commanders to ensure his maneuver and fire plan
        
        supports their plans.
        
        • Assigns targets.
        
        • Conducts rehearsals.
        
        • Vehicles are mounted with the best weapon’s mix for the mission and additional ammunition is
        
        brought forward.
        
        • Routes to support by fire and attack-by-fire positions are reconnoitered by leaders and marked.
        
        • Check equipment for serviceability.
        
        Feint
        
        4-47. The feint is in many ways identical to other forms of the attack. Its purpose is to cause the enemy to react in a particular way, such as by repositioning forces, committing its reserve, or shifting fires. The key difference between the feint and other attack forms is that it is much more limited in scope, with an extremely specific objective. The scale of the operation, however, usually is apparent only to the controlling headquarters. For the element actually conducting the feint, such as a weapons company, platoon, or section, execution is just as rapid and as violent as in a full-scale attack. The grenade machine guns may be very effective during a feint by delivering a high volume of high explosive into the target area.
        
        EXPLOITATION
        
        4-10. Exploitation is a type of offensive operation that rapidly follows a successful attack and is designed to disorganize the enemy in depth. The objective of exploitation is to complete the enemy’s disintegration. The weapons company uses speed and firepower to actively seek to gain terrain or destroy enemy forces. The weapons company paired with close combat attack from army aviation can be very effective in maintaining the initiative and tempo.
      - ABLAUF
        
        4-12. As the company commander plans an offensive mission, he generally considers a sequence of operations, which apply to many, but not all, offensive operations. Offensive operations generally follow a sequence of several events. These are assembly area operations, reconnaissance, movement to the line of departure, maneuver, deployment, assault, consolidation, and reorganization.
        
        ASSEMBLY AREA
        
        4-13. The commander directs and supervises mission preparations in the assembly area to prepare the unit for the upcoming battle. This includes the mounting of the best weapon for the mission. Preparation time also allows the unit to conduct pre-combat inspections and checks, rehearsals, TLPs, and sustainment activities. For more information on action in the assembly area, see Troop Leading Procedures in FM 3-21.10; Chapter 11 in this manual, and precombat checks (PCC) and precombat inspections (PCI) checklist in Chapter 2 of this manual.
        
        RECONNAISSANCE
        
        4-14. Reconnaissance should be conducted at all echelons. The enemy situation and available planning time may limit the unit’s reconnaissance, but leaders at every level must aggressively seek information about the terrain and enemy. A ground reconnaissance is preferred but often not possible. Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), Force XXI Battle Command, Brigade and Below (FBCB2), and, at a minimum,
        map reconnaissance may have to be used in lieu of a ground reconnaissance. If the digital map is installed,
        the FBCB2 allows leaders to determine the line of sight, dead space from locations, and permits the
        selection of tentative firing positions. However, it does not take into account man-made features and
        vegetation. The weapons company may be assigned recon responsibilities and can use the weapons sights
        for increased visibility in visual recon, perform area recon or route recon in support of the main body
        movement.
        
        MOVEMENT TO THE LINE OF DEPARTURE
        
        4-15. When attacking from positions not in contact, the weapons company often stages in rear assembly areas, road marches to attack positions behind friendly units in contact with the enemy, and conducts a forward passage of lines. When necessary, the unit employs indirect fires, close air support (when available), and direct fire to facilitate movement.
        
        MANEUVER
        
        4-16. The weapons company commander plans the approach to the objective to ensure security, speed, and flexibility. He selects the routes, techniques, and formations that protects his force and supports the actions on the objective. The unit may need to overcome enemy resistance en route to the objective and should plan accordingly. The commander will often use movement techniques such as the bounding overwatch to maneuver to support by fire positions.
        
        DEPLOYMENT
        
        4-17. The weapons company deploys and moves toward the final attack-by-fire or support by fire positions. Units cover their assigned sectors of fire and may place their vehicles in hull defilade positions by using existing terrain to their advantage. They need to be prepared to seize their position and may either have scouts reconnoiter their positions or have Infantry clear the positions if necessary.
        
        ASSAULT
        
        4-18. The unit's objective may be terrain- or force oriented. Terrain-oriented objectives require the unit to secure and retain a designated area and often require fighting through enemy forces. If the objective is force-oriented, an objective area may be assigned for orientation, but the unit’s effort is focused on the enemy’s actual disposition. The weapons company can either direct their fires onto the objective, be used to isolate it from other enemy positions, cover enemy avenues of approach, or other missions as assigned.
        
        CONSOLIDATION AND REORGANIZATION
        
        4-19. The company executes follow-on missions as directed by the higher commander. Whether a raid, hasty attack, or deliberate attack, the unit organizes itself and prepares for continued operations, which may include continued offensive actions, transition to stability operations, or defensive operations. Regardless of the follow-on mission, the unit will perform site security, process any detainees, and conduct tactical site exploitation (TSE). During TSE all collected items and personnel are properly documented, photographed, and handled according to TSOP to ensure accountability and chain of custody.
    - - Concentrate the effects of combat power at the decisive place and time. A-6. Commanders mass the effects of combat power in time and space to achieve both destructive and constructive results. Massing in time applies the elements of combat power against multiple decisive points simultaneously. Massing in space concentrates the effects of combat power against a single decisive point. Both can overwhelm opponents or dominate a situation. Commanders select the method that best fits the circumstances. Massed effects overwhelm the entire enemy or adversary force before it can react effectively. A-7. Army forces can mass lethal and nonlethal effects quickly and across large distances. This does not imply that they accomplish their missions with massed fires alone. Swift and fluid maneuver based on situational understanding complements fires. Often, this combination in a single operation accomplishes what formerly took an entire campaign. A-8. In combat, commanders mass the effects of combat power against a combination of elements critical to the enemy force to shatter its coherence. Some effects may be concentrated and vulnerable to operations that mass in both time and space. Other effects may be spread throughout depth of the operational area, vulnerable only to massing effects in time. A-9. Mass applies equally in operations characterized by civil support or stability. Massing in a stability or civil support operation includes providing the proper forces at the right time and place to alleviate suffering and provide security. Commanders determine priorities among the elements of full spectrum operations and allocate the majority of their available forces to the most important tasks. They focus combat power to produce significant results quickly in specific areas, sequentially if necessary, rather than dispersing capabilities across wide areas and accomplishing less.
      - 4-4. Units achieve concentration by massing the effects of their weapons systems without necessarily massing their vehicles at a single location. Proper control and modern position location devices enable the leader to disperse his vehicles while retaining the ability to quickly mass the effects of the platoon’s weapons systems whenever necessary. The challenge for the company commander is to concentrate combat power while reducing the enemy's ability to do the same against his unit... Examples of concentrating the firepower of the weapons company and other weapon systems include coordinating obstacle with direct and indirect fires, multiple platoons firing into an engagement area, and the use of supplementary positions to mass fires.
      - TEMPO
        
        4-5. Tempo is the ability to adjust the rate of operations relative to battle circumstances and relative to the enemy’s capability to sense and react. It is the controlled rate of military action. While a rapid tempo is often preferred, tempo should be adjusted to ensure synchronization. The weapons company can utilize tempo by using its mobility advantage to position its units, and using mission-type orders and tactical standing operating procedures (TSOP) to increase its ability to more quickly maneuver against the enemy.
    - - Allocate minimum essential combat power to secondary efforts. A-10. Economy of force is the reciprocal of mass. Commanders allocate only the minimum combat power necessary to shaping and sustaining operations so they can mass combat power for the decisive operation. This requires accepting prudent risk. Taking calculated risks is inherent in conflict. Commanders never leave any unit without a purpose. When the time comes to execute, all units should have tasks to perform.
    - - Place the enemy in a disadvantageous position through the flexible application of combat power. A-11. Maneuver concentrates and disperses combat power to keep the enemy at a disadvantage. It achieves results that would otherwise be more costly. Effective maneuver keeps enemy forces off balance by making them confront new problems and new dangers faster than they can counter them. Army forces gain and preserve freedom of action, reduce vulnerability, and exploit success through maneuver. Maneuver is more than just fire and movement. It includes the dynamic, flexible application of all the elements of combat power. It requires flexibility in thought, plans, and operations. In operations dominated by stability or civil support, commanders use maneuver to interpose Army forces between the population and threats to security and to concentrate capabilities through movement.
    - - For every objective, ensure unity of effort under one responsible commander. A-12. Applying a force’s full combat power requires unity of command. Unity of command means that a single commander directs and coordinates the actions of all forces toward a common objective. Cooperation may produce coordination, but giving a single commander the required authority is the most effective way to achieve unity of effort. A-13. The joint, interagency, intergovernmental, and multinational nature of unified action creates situations where the commander does not directly control all organizations in the operational area. In the absence of command authority, commanders cooperate, negotiate, and build consensus to achieve unity of effort.
    - - Never permit the enemy to acquire an unexpected advantage. A-14. Security protects and preserves combat power. Security results from measures a command takes to protect itself from surprise, interference, sabotage, annoyance, and threat surveillance and reconnaissance. Military deception greatly enhances security.
    - - Strike the enemy at a time or place or in a manner for which he is unprepared. A-15. Surprise is the reciprocal of security. It is a major contributor to achieving shock. It results from taking actions for which the enemy is unprepared. Surprise is a powerful but temporary combat multiplier. It is not essential to take enemy forces completely unaware; it is only necessary that they become aware too late to react effectively. Factors contributing to surprise include speed, operations security, and asymmetric capabilities.
      - 4-3. Units achieve surprise by striking the enemy at a time, at a place, or in a manner for which he is unprepared. Surprise delays and disrupts the enemy's ability to react. The speed and lethality of the weapons company makes the use of surprise an important advantage. Surprise also reduces the vulnerability of the
        company. Some methods that the weapons company can use to achieve surprise are:
        • Following operations security (OPSEC) procedures.
        • Massed and simultaneous engagements of fires from multiple weapons units.
        • Making the best possible use of vehicle speed.
        • Operating during limited visibility.
        • Using covered or concealed routes during tactical movements.
        • Attacking in an unexpected direction such as a flank or rear.
    - - Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans and clear, concise orders to ensure thorough understanding. A-16. Plans and orders should be simple and direct. Simple plans and clear, concise orders reduce misunderstanding and confusion. The situation determines the degree of simplicity required. Simple plans executed on time are better than detailed plans executed late. Commanders at all levels weigh potential benefits of a complex concept of operations against the risk that subordinates will fail to understand or follow it. Orders use clearly defined terms and graphics. Doing this conveys specific instructions to subordinates with reduced chances for misinterpretation and confusion. A-17. Multinational operations put a premium on simplicity. Differences in language, doctrine, and culture complicate them. Simple plans and orders minimize the confusion inherent in this complex environment. The same applies to operations involving interagency and nongovernmental organizations.
  - - - Who, What, When Where, and Why
        
        The first step in problem solving is recognizing and defining the problem. To determine the problem, you must define both its scope and limitations. It’s important that you give enough time to this step before continuing with the problem solving process. To identify a problem effectively, look beneath the surface to its root cause. You can do this by asking:
        
        Whom does the problem affect?
        
        What is affected?
        
        When did the problem occur?
        
        Where is the problem?
        
        Why did the problem occur?
        
        Once you identify the root cause, write a concise statement of the problem using an infinitive phrase—a verb (action word) with “to” in front of it. Some examples of problems you might face as a student and Cadet: “To find the best route to the airport.” “To make the dean’s list.” “To improve my physical fitness to meet the Army standard.”
    - - Facts, Assumptions, and Interests
        
        Distinguish Between Facts and Assumptions
        
        You will find that information gathering begins with defining the problem and continues throughout the problem solving process. You should make every effort to gather as much information as possible from primary sources, including interviews and letters of request for specific information, regulations, and policies. From these resources, you will obtain facts, which are verifiable pieces of information. You also will gather assumptions, information that you accept as true, but cannot verify. If an assumption turns out to be both a) valid, and b) necessary to solving the problem, you can treat it as a fact and use it in your decision making. But you should always continue to try to confirm or deny the validity of your assumptions throughout the problem solving process.
        
        Organizing Information
        
        First, you must confirm the accuracy of your facts. Next, you should share information with others on the problem solving team. You can learn a lot by listening to team members. What you learn may lead to a solution or help you in future decision making. Good decisions are not made in a vacuum. That’s why you must coordinate with other leaders or organizations that the problem or solution may affect. You can sometimes achieve this informally, through a meeting or phone call. If the problem is very complex and affects a lot of people, however, you may want to communicate in a more formal manner.
    - - Screening and Evaluation
        
        A criterion (plural: criteria) is a standard, rule, or test by which you can judge something. Criteria are based on facts or assumptions. To be an effective leader, you should use screening criteria to ensure that the solution you are considering will solve the problem. Appropriate screening criteria consider whether the solution is:
        
        • suitable—whether the solution solves the problem and is legal and ethical
        
        • feasible—whether it fits into the constraints of available resources
        
        • acceptable—whether it is worth the cost or risk
        
        • distinguishable—whether it differs significantly from other solutions offered
        
        • complete—whether it contains all the critical elements of solving the problem from
        
        start to finish.
        
        After developing screening criteria, you may develop evaluating criteria to differentiate among possible solutions. The following are included in evaluating criteria:
        
        • Short title—the criterion name
        
        • Definition—the feature you are evaluating
        
        • Unit of measure—objective value such as dollars or miles per gallon
        
        • Benchmark—a value that defines the desired goal, which can be based on:
        
        • reasoning—personal experience
        
        • historical precedent—examples of past success
        
        • current example—an existing condition you consider desirable
        
        • averaging—the mathematical average of the solutions you are considering
        
        • formula—how the change in the value of the criterion affects the desirability of the possible solution, stated in comparative terms (more is better; high gas mileage is better than low gas mileage).
        
        Since the criteria are rarely of equal importance, for each problem you should assign a weight to each criterion to show how important it is in determining the solution.
    - - Suitable, Feasible, Acceptable, Distinguishable, and Complete
        
        During this phase of problem solving, you may benefit from brainstorming, in which you seek the ideas for solutions from your team. After stating the problem, be open to as many options as possible. It’s critical that you withhold judgment as you listen to team members. By engaging in this nonjudgmental listening, you will encourage creativity and independent thinking, which are valuable attributes for Army leaders. After hearing various solutions, you can disregard those that don’t meet the standards you previously established. At this point, you should summarize the potential solution. A simple solution will require only a single sentence; a more complicated solution may require more detail, including a concept plan or sketch.
    - - Benchmark (Does the solution achieve the desired state?)
        
        Analyze each solution to determine its merits and shortcomings. What are the pros? What are the cons? Use your screening criteria to make sure the proposed solution meets your minimum requirements. Then use your benchmarks to decide whether the proposed solution will result in the desired state.
    - - Determine the Best Solution
        
        Determine the best solution by comparing each possible solution against the others. Select the solution that best solves the problem based on your evaluation criteria. Army leaders often use a decision matrix, like that in Table 5.1, to help them compare solutions.
    - - Decide and Act
        
        Once you identify the preferred solution, you implement it. If the solution is complex, you may need to create a formal plan of action to submit to your superiors. The problem solving process ends only when you solve the problem. Even though you may go through the problem solving process without a hitch, the solution works only if others find it acceptable. Good leaders must be able to convince others that their ideas are worthy of attention. That’s why the writing and briefing skills you are learning in ROTC are as important as your problem solving skills.