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Memory - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Can occur when the environment during recall is diff. from the environment you were in when you were learning
      - Godden & Baddeley (1975)
        
        This study took place in Scotland
        
        Procedure
        
        18 divers from a diving club, asked to learn lists of 36 unrealted words of 2/3 syllables
        
        4 conditions
        
        Learn on beach, recall under water
        
        Learn underwater, recall on beach
        
        Learn on beach, recall on beach
        
        Learn underwater, recall underwater
        
        Investigated the effect of environment on recall
        
        Results
        
        BB, 13.5
        
        BW, 8.6
        
        WB, 8.5
        
        WW, 11.4
        
        Conclusion
        
        Ppts decreased in accuracy of recall when ppts og state didn't match their state during encoding and retrieval
    - - Occurs when your mood/physiological state during recall is diff. from the mood you were in when you were learning
      - Goodwin et al (1969)
        
        Intoxicated groups had 111mg alcohol in blood & showed signs of intoxication
        
        Ppts had to perform 4 tests
        
        An avoidance task
        
        A verbal rote-learning task
        
        A word association test
        
        A picture recognition task
        
        Randomly assigned to 4 groups
        
        AA intoxicated on both days
        
        AS intoxicated on day 1, sober day 2
        
        SS soberon both days
        
        SA sober on day 1, intoxicated day 2
        
        More errors were made on day 2 in AS & SA than in AA, however isn't the case for pic recog. test, the SS performed best in all tasks
        
        Supports SDM as performance was best in ppts who were sober/intoxicated on both days
        
        48 male medical students on day 1 in a training sessions and on day 2 in a testing
      - Carter & Cassidy (1998)
        
        Procedure
        
        Gave antihistamine drugs or placebo to ppts
        
        As antihistamines have a mild side effect of drowsiness
        
        Ppts had 4 conditions
        
        Learn not on drug, recall on drug
        
        Learn on drug, recall not on drug
        
        Learn on drug, recall on drug
        
        Learn not on drug, recall not on drug
        
        In the conditions where there was a mismatch, performance was sig. worse
        
        Investigated the effect of your physiological state on recall
        
        When cues are absent, there is more forgetting
    - - 2 Different recall conditions
        
        Group 1 - Ppts recall as many words as they can (free recall)
        
        Group 2 - Ppts were given cues (name of category) and have to recall as many words as possible (cued recall)
      - Findings
        
        Free recall condition - 40% of words recalled on average
        
        Cued recall condition - 60% of words recalled on average
      - Ppts had to learn 48 words, belonging to 12 categories
        
        Each word was presented as 'category + word'
      - Conclusion
        
        Suggests memory is most effective if info that was present at encoding is also available at time of retrieval
    - - Research evidence
        
        Carter & Cassidy
        
        Increases validity
        
        Godden & Baddeley
      - Real life applications
        
        Used as a strategy to improve recall in EWT, when witnesses are asked to describe their mood & emotional state
        
        Abernathy (1940) found that students performed better in tests if the tests took place in the same room as the learning and were administered by the same instructor who had taught the info
      - Retrieval cues don't always work
        
        In most research, ppts learn word lists, but usually, you are learning complex associations that are less easily triggered by simple cues
        
        Outshining hypothesis - cue's effectiveness is reduced by the presence of better cues
        
        Information we are learning is related to more than just cues
        
        Smith and Vela (2001), context effects are largely eliminated when learning meaningful material
      - ESP is impossible to test
        
        However, if recall doesn't occur, it is argued a cue wasn't encoded in memory
        
        Whether the encoding of a cue took place or not is impossible to test, so we can never fully understand the ESP
        
        If a cue aids retrieval, it can be argued the cue had to be encoded at the same time as the memory for recall
    - - Reviewed research into retrieval failure
      - Noticed a pattern called Encoding Specificity Principle
        
        When we encode a new memory, we also store info that occurred around it
        
        If we can't remember it, it could be due to not being in a similar situation
        
        It isn't because we have forgotten it, we just don't have the right cues to access it
        
        Reason we forget is due to insufficient cues
        
        Some cues are linked in a meaningful way
        
        Mnemonics - tools to help remember facts or large amounts of info
        
        Can be a song, rhyme, acronym, image, phrase
        
        Memory is most effective if info present at encoding is also available at time of retrieval
  - - - Results
        
        Ppts spent longer looking at the gun than the cheque
        
        Ppts in the gun condition remembered less details
      - Evaluation
        
        Not the same physiological response
      - Procedure
        
        Ppts watched one of two sequences
        
        Person pointing a gun at a cashier in a restaurant
        
        Person handling a cheque to a cashier in restaurant
        
        Ppts eye movements were recorded
    - - Reviewed 21 studies (meta-analysis) of the effect of anxiety on EWT
      - Found 10 studies had high levels of arousal to increased EWT accuracy while 11 had the opposite
    - - Findings
        
        Witnesses were accurate in their account & there was little change in accuracy after 5 months
        
        Though some details were inaccurate (height estimate)
        
        Ppts who had the highest stress levels were most accurate (88% compared to 75%)
      - Anxiety increases accuracy & recall
      - Procedure
        
        Conducted a study of a real shooting in Vancouver
        
        Shop owner shot a thief dead
        
        21 witnesses, 13 agreed to take part in the study
        
        These were compared to police interviews at the time of shooting
        
        Interviews were held 4-5 months after the incident
        
        Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported
        
        Witnesses were asked how stressed they felt at the time using a 7-point scale & asked if they had emotional problems since
      - Evaluation
        
        Guns are more normal
        
        Natural experiment
    - - States that performance improves with increased arousal up to an optimal point
      - Accuracy is poor when arousal is too low or too high but better when moderate
    - - Findings
        
        Supported the idea of weapon focus
        
        Mean accuracy was 49% in low anxiety condition & 33^% in high anxiety
      - If someone is in a high state of anxiety, they aren't focused on the surroundings, they are focused on the weapon
      - Procedure
        
        Asked ppts to sit in a waiting room where they had an argument in the next room and then saw a man running through a room either carrying a pen covered in grease or a knife covered in blood
        
        Ppts were asked to identify the man
      - Evaluation
        
        Lacks temporal validity
        
        Exposure to crime is different now compared to 1976 (movies, media)
        
        Controlled environment
        
        Control over variables, internal validity
        
        Artificial
        
        Pen covered in grease is really weird (shock)
    - - Both pieces of research are conducted in a field setting
        
        Yuile & Cutshall conducted interviews on real life witnesses to a real crime, 5 months after the event
        
        During the time inbetween, many things may have happened to the ppts that the researcher had no control over
        
        Field research sometimes lacks control, especially with longitudinal studiess
        
        PED is one factor, when witnesses discuss the event with other people, read newspaper articles and possibly be interviewed again
        
        In a field experiment, these act as extraneous variables
        
        Anxiety may be overwhelmed by these factors & impossible to assess by the time ppts are interviewed
      - Emotional sensitivity
        
        Opposite was true for neurotic individuals
        
        Suggests that anxiety as a factor affecting EWT is a result of personality traits and can't be generalised
        
        Found that more stable a person was deemed, the more accurate their recall as they became more stressed
        
        Anxiety should be looked at on an individual basis
        
        Bothwell et al (1987) assessed ppts for neuroticism, labelling ppts as neurotic or stable
        
        Explanation is not complete
      - Weapon focus may not be caused by anxiety
        
        Least accurate in high surprise rather than high threat
        
        Suggests that weapon focus is not down to anxiety but rather surprise of seeing a weapon as it may be unfamiliar to witnesses
        
        Arranged ppts to watch a thief enter a hairdressing salon
        
        Hand gun (high threat, high surprise)
        
        Wallet (low threat, low surprise)
        
        Whole raw chicken (low threat, high surprise)
        
        Carrying scissors (high threat, low surprise)
        
        Pickel (1998) proposed that reduced accuracy due to weapon focus could be due to surprise not anxiety
      - More complex relationship than Yerkes-Dodson model
        
        Means that the Yerkes-Dodson law may be too simplistic & not explain the relationship
        
        The inverted-U only describes increases in physiological anxiety
        
        They observed that there is a catastrophic decline, due to increased mental anxiety
        
        The inverted U was supported by Deffenbacher et al (2004) who believed this fit better with research findings & explained the relationship better
        
        Fazey & Hardy (1988) proposed catastrophe theory, which predicts that when physiological arousal increases beyond the optimum, the inverted U-hypothesis predictrs a gradual decrease in performance
  - - - Occurs when a newer memory interferes with an older one
      - Muller
        
        Findings
        
        Performance was less good if ppts had been given intervening task between initial learning and recall (shown 3 landscape paintings & asked to describe them)
        
        Conclusion
        
        Intervening task produced RI because the later task interfered with whta had previously been learnt
        
        Method
        
        Gave ppts nonsense syllables to learn for 6 mins
        
        After a retention interval asked ppts to recall the list
    - - Both cases of retro & pro interference, the interference is worse when the memories are similar
      - McGeoch & McDonald (1931)
        
        Then learned a new list
        
        6 diff. groups
        
        Synonyms
        
        Antonyms
        
        Words unrelated to OG ones
        
        Nonsense syllables
        
        3 digit numbers
        
        Control group (no new list)
        
        Ppts had to learn a list of words until they could remember them 100% accurately
        
        When ppts recalled the OG list of words, their performance depended on the nature of the second list
        
        Studied retroactive interference by changing the amount of similarity between 2 set of materials
        
        Most similar material had the worst recall
        
        Interference is the strongest when the memories are similar
    - - Occurs when an older memory interferes with a new one
      - Underwood (1957)
        
        Findings
        
        Ppts remembered 10 or more lists, after 24 hrs, they remembered 20% of what was learnt
        
        If they were only one list, recall was 70%
        
        Conclusions
        
        When ppts have to learn a series of word lists, they don't learn the words later on as well
        
        Method
        
        Analysed findings of other studies
    - - Lab studies attempt to avoid this problem by conducting experiments quickly so time isn't a confounding variable, but this isn't how people learn information in real life
      - Accessibility vs Availability
        
        Ceraso (1967) found that if memory was tested again after 24hrs, recognition (accessibility) showed considerable spontaneous recovery whereas recall (availability) remained the same
        
        Suggests that interference occurs because memories are temporarily not accessible rather than being lost
      - Tells us little about cognitive processes involved in forgetting (describes but doesn't explain why)
      - Real world application
        
        This is a serious problem considering the amount of money that advertisers spend only to have the effect of their advertisement diluted by interference
        
        Danaher et al suggest that one strategy might enhance the memory trace by running multiple exposures to an advertisement on one day rather than spread out over a week
        
        Danaher et al (2008) found that recall & recognition of an advertiser's message were impaired when ppts were exposed to 2 advertisements for competing brands within a week
        
        Results in reduced interference from competitor's advertisements
        
        A considerable body of research on the effects of interference when people are exposed to adverts from competing brands within a short time period
      - Very difficult to establish whether forgetting is due to time or interference
        
        Baddeley & Hitch (1977) wanted to compare the 2 explanations of forgetting (decay & interference)
        
        Injuries & suspensions meant that most players missed some games throughout the season
        
        Results
        
        Were able to show that the probability of correct recall wasn't dependent on the passage of time, as alternative theories would predict but number of intervening games
        
        Recall for the last games was equally good whether that game played some time ago or last week
        
        Asked rugby players to recall the names of teams played earlier in the season
        
        Looked at how recall was affected by number of intervening games and the amount of time that had passed between games
        
        However, they do get hit on the head a lot
- - - - Acoustic
      - Baddeley (1966)
        
        Method
        
        Ppts are given 4 sets of words that were either
        
        Acoustically similar
        
        Acoustically dissimilar
        
        Semantically similar
        
        Semantically dissimilar
        
        Ppts recalled words immediately or after a 20 minute task
        
        Results
        
        Ppts had problems recalled acoustically similar words when recall was immediate
        
        Problems recalling semantically similar words when recall was delayed
        
        Patterns of confusion between similar words suggest STM relies on acoustic coding
        
        Independent groups design
        
        AO3
        
        Lacks ecological validity
        
        Independent groups design so no control over ppt variables
    - - 18 seconds
      - Peterson & Peterson (1959)
        
        Results
        
        After 18 seconds, only 10% were recalled correctly
        
        When rehearsal is prevented, what stays in STM for longer than 18 secs is limited
        
        After 3 seconds, ppts could recall 80% of trigrams correctly
        
        AO3
        
        High reliability
        
        Conducted in a lab, tightly controlled variables
        
        Easier to replicate
        
        Lacks ecological validity
        
        Conducted in a lab
        
        Artificial and cannot be applied to real life
        
        Method
        
        Ppts were shown nonsense trigrams & asked to recall them after 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds
        
        During the pause, they had to count backwards in 3s from a given number (interference task)
    - - Studies
        
        Jacobs (1887)
        
        Participants are shown a string of letters/digits and are asked to repeat the strings in the same order with the no. of digits increasing until they recall it incorrectly
        
        On average, participants recalled 9 digits or 7 letters and it increased with age during childhood
        
        Limited storage capacity of 5-9 items
        
        AO3
        
        Artificial and lacks ecological validity
        
        Meaningful information could be recalled better
        
        Ambiguous task so the previous sequence could have confused ppts
        
        Miller (1956)
        
        Found people can remember 7 items
        
        He proposed the capacity was 7+-2
        
        Reviewed research into the capacity of STM
        
        Chunking combines individual letters/numbers into larger, more meaningful units
        
        Increases the capacity of STM as it can now hold 7 chunks of info
      - 7+-2
  - - - Semantic
      - Baddeley
        
        See STM for study
        
        Patterns of confusion between similar words suggests LTM is more likely to rely on semantic coding
    - - Unlimited
      - Bahrick et al (1975)
        
        Results
        
        Within 15 years
        
        Ppts recognised 90% of names and faces, 60% accuracy on free recall
        
        After 30 years
        
        Free recall fell to 30%
        
        After 48 years
        
        Name recognition had 80% accuracy & photo recognition was 40%
        
        Recognition is better than recall suggesting a big store of info that might be hard to access without cues
        
        AO3
        
        Field experiment - high ecological validity
        
        Hard to control variables - less reliability
        
        Method
        
        392 American ex high school students
        
        Asked to list the names of ex-classmates (free recall test)
        
        Investigation of LTM in a natural setting
        
        Shown photos and asked to recall names (photo-recognition test) or given names and asked to match the name to photo (name-recognition test)
    - - Unlimited
  - - - 1/2 a second
    - - Modality specific
    - - Large but unknown
- - - - Articulatory Control System
        
        Rehearses information verbally
        
        Time based capacity of about 2 seconds
      - Phonological Store
        
        Stores information
        
        Information decays after about 2 seconds
        
        Can be changed if it is rehearsed with the ACS
      - Deals with auditory information
    - - Stores and manipulates visual info
      - Input is from eyes or LTM
      - Two components
        
        Visual Cache - stores visual data
        
        Inner Scribe - records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
    - - Can briefly store information
      - Limited capacity
      - Controls attention and coordinates the actions of other components
      - Modality free
    - - Binds together all information from other components about time and order
      - Prepares memories for storage in episodic LTM
      - Temporary store
      - Added in 2000
      - Limited capacity of about 4 chunks
    - - They thought that short-term memory wasn't a passive store but several active processes that manipulate information
    - - Lack of Clarity over the CE
        
        This component is unsatisfactory and doesn't explain anything
        
        Needs to be clearly specified
      - Studies of Word Length Effect
        
        Finite space for rehearsal in articulatory process
        
        WLE disappears if a person is given an articulatory suppression task (repetitive task that ties up articulatory process)
        
        Baddeley et al (1975) found people find it difficult to remember a list of long words compared to short words (word length effect)
      - Dual Task Performance
        
        Increased difficulty because both visual compete for the same system but when both are different there is not competition
        
        There must be a separate system for visual and verbal input
        
        Baddeley et al (1975)
        
        Ppts had more difficulty doing 2 visual tasks than a visual and verbal at the same time
      - Brain Scanning
        
        Found great activity in the left prefrontal cortex
        
        Activity in this area increased as the task became harder
        
        Braver et al (1997) gave ppts tasks that involved the CE while they had a brain scan
        
        As demands of the CE increase, it has to work harder to fulfil its function
      - Clinical Evidence
        
        Shallice & Warrington's KF study
        
        Suggests his phonological loop had been damaged but other areas were intact
        
        Supports existence of separate visual and acoustic stores
        
        After brain damage, KF had poor STM ability for verbal info but could process visual
        
        May not be reliable as the case is unique
  - - - Type of explicit memory
      - Usually start as episodic but lose their association with events and the knowledge remains
      - Memory of facts & knowledge of the world
    - - Require a lot of repetition and practice
      - Implicit
      - Memory of how to do things
      - Automatic
    - - Type of explicit memory
      - Include details of an event, the context and emotion
      - Personal memories of events
    - - Neuroimaging studies
        
        Episodic & semantic memories were recalled in the prefrontal cortex (left prefrontal = semantic, right prefrontal = episodic)
        
        Supports that there are diff. types of LTM and has been replicated
        
        Tulving got ppts to perform tasks while using a PET scan
      - Real life application
        
        Belleville (2006) improved episodic in old people with mild cognitive impairment
        
        Being able to distinguish types of LTM allows specific treatment to be developed
      - Distinguishing procedural and declarative
        
        Clive could read and play complex piano
        
        HM could form new procedural memories but had no memory of how he learnt it
        
        HM and Clive Wearing had brain damage that affected their episodic memory but their semantic and procedural memories were intact
        
        Shows procedural memory is distinct from semantic and episodic
      - Problems with clinical evidence
        
        Case studies have a lack of control
        
        Non-replicable
        
        Rare
        
        Biased
      - Distinguishing episodic and semantic
        
        Most of general knowledge of the world and himself is intact but cannot recall any personal event
        
        Shows semantic memory and episodic are two distinct processes
        
        KF had a motorcycle accident leaving him with widespread brain damage (large bilateral hippocampal lesions)
      - Three types or two
        
        They accept procedural represent 1 type
        
        They argue that episodic and semantic are stored together in one store (declarative memory)
        
        Cohen & Squire (1980) disagree with Tulving's division of LTM into 3 types
        
        In contrast, procedural are non-declarative
  - - - Theory based around how we store information we have processed and is a linear model showing information flow through the process of memory
      - Suggests that human memory can be broken down into three different memory stores
      - Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
      - < retrieval LTM
        
        STM > prolonged rehearsal ) maintenance rehearsal
        
        Sensory Register
        
        Stimulus
    - - Research Studies
        
        Bahrik et al
        
        3 conditions, free recall, photo and name recognition, duration lifetime
        
        Suggests it is unitary
        
        Stand alone stores due to the differing duration, capacity and coding
        
        Baddeley
        
        Acoustic and semantic coding using ppts
        
        Supports the validity of MSM
        
        Peterson & Peterson
        
        Nonsense trigrams, interference task, duration 18 seconds
      - Murdock & Serial Position Effect
        
        Primary and recency effects
        
        When remembering lists of words/numbers, we remember the beginning and the end
        
        The end is in our STM
        
        The middle is lost, which supports the idea of separate stores
        
        The beginning has been rehearsed
      - Case Studies
        
        H.M
        
        Had severe epilepsy, had a bit of brain removed, resulted in anterograde amnesia
        
        Cleve Wearing
        
        Virus that leads to brain damage and anterograde amnesia
        
        K.F
        
        Motorbike accident that ended in brain damage and retrograde amnesia
        
        Support the idea of unitary memory systems based on retrograde/anterograde amnesia
        
        AO3
        
        Incredibly rare, cannot generalise
        
        Do not have cause and effect evidence as we only researched after the trauma
        
        Cannot be sure memory works in the way the case studies support due to lack of replicability
- - - - Gabbert (2003)
        
        Procedure
        
        Studied ppts in pairs
        
        Each watched a video of the same crime from diff. POVs
        
        Meant that each ppt could see diff elements
        
        Both ppts discussed what they saw then individually completed a recall test
        
        Findings
        
        71% ppts mistakenly recalled aspects that they didn't see but picked up from discussion
      - Bonder et al (2009
        
        Found effect of PED can be reduced if ppts were warned of effects
        
        More accurate recall for ppts warned that anything they may hear is second-hand info and should be forgotten
      - When co-witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other, their EWT may become contaminated
        
        They may combine misinformation from other witnesses with their own memories
    - - Loftus and Palmer
        
        First Experiment
        
        Results
        
        Those who heard 'smashed' gave a higher estimated speed than those who heard 'hit'
        
        Method
        
        They were asked to predict how fast the car was travelling when the accident occurred
        
        Different groups had different words to described the accident
        
        Hit
        
        Contacted
        
        Bumped
        
        Collided
        
        Smashed
        
        Ppts were shown films of car accidents
        
        Second Experiment
        
        Method
        
        Ppts returned a week later and were asked 10 questions, including 'did you see any broken glass'
        
        There was no broken glass in the film
        
        A new set of ppts were divided into 3 groups and shown a film of a car accident
        
        Smashed
        
        Hit
        
        Control group weren't asked a question about speed
        
        Results
        
        17% ppts in smashed said they saw broken glass, 7% in hit
        
        Ppts gave higher speed estimates in smashed as before
        
        Also more likely to think they saw broken glass
        
        Aim - to see if asking leading questions affects the accuracy of recall
    - - Useful real-life application
        
        Identity parades alone may have limited use
        
        Taking witnesses back to the crime scene may help with recal
        
        Police and lawyers talking to witnesses are advised to not use leading questions
        
        Psychologists believe they can make a positive difference to the lives of real people
      - Artificial tasks
        
        Very different to real life as emotions can influence memory
        
        Artificial tasks may tell us very little about leading questions affecting EWT
        
        Loftus and Palmer use film clips
        
        EWT could be more reliable than researchers suggest
      - Individual differences
        
        Older people are less accurate than younger people with EWT
        
        Anastasi & Rhodes (2006)
        
        People aged 18-25 & 35-45 were more accurate than 55-78
        
        All age groups were more accurate with identifying people of their own age group (age bias)
        
        Studies often use younger people as target to identify and this may mean some groups appear less accurate but this isn't true
      - Demand characteristics
        
        Zaragosa & McCloskey (1989) argue that many answers ppts give in lab studies are demand characteristics
        
        Ppts don't want to let the researcher down and want to appear helpful and attentive
      - Consequences
        
        Foster et al (1994) point out that what you remember as an eyewitness can have very important consequences but the same isn't true in research studies
  - - - Reviewed memory literature
        
        People remembered things better if they are provided with retrieval cues
      - The technique devised had 4 components
        
        Reinstatement of context
        
        Change order
        
        Report everything
        
        Change perspective
    - - Developed some additional elements to focus on the dynamics of social interaction
      - Types
        
        Reducing anxiety
        
        Minimising distractions
        
        Eye contact
        
        Getting the witness to speak slowly
        
        Asking open ended questions
    - - Important to improve effectiveness of questioning and to apply the findings to this area
    - - The older the ppts (75-95 yrs old), the less complete and less accurate the recall
      - However, when they used cognitive interview technique, older ppts recalled sig. greater detail without any false info
      - Investigated how age affects recall
      - Not as good with younger people as they go off on tangents
    - - The sequencing of questioned seemed out of sync with the witnesses' own mental representation of the event
      - Witnesses were often interrupted and not allowed to talk freely about their experiences
      - Witnesses were frequently bombarded with a series of brief, direct and close-ended questions aimed to elicit facts
    - - Training is needed so it costs more money
      - Milne & Bull (2002) found each technique was individually valuable
        
        RE and CR produced better recall and was more useful
      - The CI is time consuming in comparison to standard
      - Kohnken (1999) combined data from 50 studies
        
        Enchanced CI provided more correct info than the standard