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Geographies of environment and sustainability - Energy - Coggle Diagram

- - - - This includes household energy, energy needed for the production, transport sector and resources needed to harvest energy.
      - Driving climate change with a lack of transitions as practices involving energy are deeply embedded into our everyday lives
  - - - Goals 7 and 13 of the sustainable development goals
- - - - “Energy production and use translates directly into control over space… such that… energy is an important physical medium through which to tilt the balance of power and exert control” (Calvert, 2016: 111)
  - - - Need to move beyond these approaches
    - - Luke (2022) – needs to go beyond replacement of jobs for those within existing fossil industries and work to challenge dominant labour relations through transition.
        
        We need to use transitions to change labour relations, instead of just perpetuating them as they are socially unsustainable.
- - - - Shaped by and shapes societal practices and politics. Everday transport, further away settlement, employment
        
        Shapes what we can and cannot do in our everday lives
      - It has also had global political and economic effects - particularly with the economics associated with oil production and consumption (used for the car)
        
        The car still shapes global geopolitics - and effects political relationships around oil that is used for the use of the car
        
        Russia, USA, Europe, Middle East etc
    - - Development of the car occured over a meriad of social processes and interaction ivolving people, politics, power and social engagement
        
        Early users of cars used them for leisure, as they were not reliable so were not for functional transport
        
        People then began to want to use the car for utility in everyday lives that it became necessary to develop the reliability of the car
        
        Development was triggered by social pressure and new needs (affordability, reliability) - which only came through the initial engagement with the social
  - - - Sustainably masking technologies such as the 'electric car' and wind farms fit into our ideas and reluctancy to change and they dominate ideas surrounding energy transitions in the UK
        
        Rather than thinking of de-centralised energy solutions, we are focusing on large scale technologies that can be distributed through existing centralised systems
- - - - NIMBY effect against large local energy projects. It can also create challenges towards places where people have place attachments may not want large energy farms in their area - do not want their 'ideaolised places to become polluted with energy technologies'
    - - Space and place can restrain access to climatic conditions, and resources needed for energy production (particularly wind, hydropower and geothermal energy.
  - - - As a global unit, we should be focusing on differences in energy availability and demand, and focusing on communities who do not have access to energy and how this can be achieved (across the global North and South).
      - We must understand different issues for different groups of people, and global environmental problems and work out where our priorities should be for different areas that will socially benefit everyone
        
        In places that do have sufficient energy systems set up, we should be considering how we can make that more sustainable (security, sustainable, affordability and equity)
        
        But in places (seen more in the Global South), where not everyone has access to energy initially - we must prioritise energy access in order to improve livelihoods
      - Teachnologies and challenges of energy systems must be looked at on Local, National (differences between North and South wales – rural and urban) and Global scales and determine who must take responsibility and look at the levels of priorities.
        
        Wales - Southern Population - with areas in Mid Wales being sparsely populated - transition strategies are going to look different for both of these perspectives
        
        Rural populations drive much further distances than those in the higher populated areas - with the introduction of electric cars may spark concerns within these communities due to range concerns, lack of infrastructure etc
    - - We need to understand how energy technologies are actually used as part of everyday lives in order to understand how we might achieve transitions.
        
        Example: Cook Stoves (Watson et al. 2012)
        
        Many people globally use cookstoves - but not just for food (warmth, central social function, reliance on phyiscal fuel and not billing for fuel) – despite them being heavily polluting due to the face that they are locally embedded practices. These have been adapted for use by communites for their everday use, and this is overriding envrionmental harm.
        
        So we must be aware of spatial and culture differences and what this could mean for envision transitions to energy systems.
        
        SDG 7 highlights how more than 40% of the world's population, around 3 billion people rely on cookstoves which are regarded as kind of polluting and use unhealthy fuels
        
        But efforts to facilitate the penetration of new alternative technologies for cooking have been really dismally low , despite global efforts at technology transfer. What this shows is the difficulty of supporting transitions to cleaner forms of energy in home cooking.
    - - (Davis and Caldeira, 2010)
        
        Davis and Calderia (2010) highlight how emissions from activities like manufacturing, aviation, shipping, and the production of goods consumed in the UK have been outsourced to other countries. When the UK measures its success in reducing emissions, it only counts the emissions produced within its borders (territorial emissions). This means it ignores the emissions created elsewhere to produce the goods consumed in the UK.
        
        As a result, past policies haven't fully addressed or accounted for the environmental impact of the UK's consumption, overlooking measures like border taxes that would include these outsourced emissions in the UK’s climate targets.
        
        This is now starting to change with some policies that are bringing this into more mainstream thinking about what we need to do to address our long term targets for climate change.
        
        We need to critically engage with the way targets are set and the spatial boundaries that are used to underpin them - and the interconnections that obscure them
      - Potential for different forms of energy to be developed in different places around the world (Jewell, 2010)
        
        Example: Nuclear Energy because this forms a major part of net zero transmission plans at international and national levels. But there are multiple embedded assumptions about global capacities for the development of nuclear energy.
        
        Jewell (2010) -
        
        Jewell evaluates 52 newcomer countries and identifies the technical, economic, and political factors influencing their readiness for nuclear power. Jewell finds that only 10 of these countries have the necessary characteristics to likely develop nuclear energy successfully. The study highlights the importance of having robust infrastructure, financial resources, and political stability for launching and sustaining nuclear programs which are all characteristics that have historically allowed for development of nuclear energy
        
        Ideas that we have for transitions will be possible at different scales, using different strategies in different places
- - - - Ties between sustainable societies and ‘just’ societies – applied to energy (Agyeman, 2003; Bickerstaff et al. 2013)
  - - - Energy justice
      - Envrironmental justice
      - Climate justice
    - - Geographical work on energy justice concerns multiple issues spanning (Jenkins et al. 2021):
      - Work evaluating where injustices emerge (distribution)
      - Work examining which sections of society are affected and marginalized or excluded in decision-making (recognition)
        
        Procedural justice - working on identifying the processes for remediation in order to reveal and reduce injustices.
        
        Distributional justice - looking at where justice or injustices emerge in terms of the distribution, the benefits and the burdens of energy, whether that's consumption or extraction
        
        Example
        
        There's inequality and unequal distribution of benefits and burdens on costs across society.
        
        Energy is crucial and central to most, if not all, of the Sustainable Development Goals underpins much of our ability to live well, it connects to vast aspects of life and well-being.
        
        Recognition justice - recognising and examining and exploring which sections of society are affected and marginalised or excluded in decision making or considerations about forms of energy, and also recognising the diversity of experiences and needs that people have.
        
        Example
        
        There's negative effects of energy siting, which disproportionately affects communities that are already marginalised in some way, might be through poverty or race or gender or mixture of those.
        
        these issues, um, exist across and within the global South and the global North context.
        
        South
        
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        North
        
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      - Work identifying processes for remediation (procedural justice) in order to reveal and reduce injustices
- - - - E.g. consumer groups might be more concerned with affordability and environmental NGOs with sustainability, while government might be more focused on issues of energy security and economic growth favouring trading off environmental sustainability for example.
    - - Lack of attention to the social and political in general in transition plans, which has diverse implications for the policies and approaches that have been and are proposed
  - - - Relates to the ideas outlined in lecture 1 about critical engagement with how energy is thought about and analysed through abstractions – and how this has important consequences for what we do in terms of policy
    - - So for Shove because energy is being thought about in the abstract – as an all purpose resource, rather than as something that is historically contingent - and that this is what’s driving efficiency policies – this leads to thinking about energy efficiency in terms of delivering the same service for less energy – and narrows the space to more fundamentally question our historically specific current ways of living - and future developments – such as the rise of the patio heater – with focus being given only to figuring out ways to meet ‘needs’ within our current ways living in more efficient ways.
    - - Shove argues that the unreflexive pursuit of energy efficiency – (pursuit of energy efficiency without interrogating its real implications for sustainability) is problematic not because it doesn’t work but because it DOES work to sustain, escalate but never fundamentally question increasingly energy intensive ways of life – which are known to be unsustainable.
        
        Shove doesn't suggest abandoning energy efficiency but rather rethinking its application. She argues that we should use energy efficiency measures only when they are truly necessary. Additionally, she emphasizes the importance of adopting approaches that promote lifestyle changes to reduce our overall energy needs. This means supporting programs that help people change their habits and ways of living to use less energy in the first place.
  - - - “A critical engagement with dominant just transitions discourses and policies requires both a careful interrogation of the political economies of capitalism and a confrontation with the conceptualisations of justice itself” (Bouzarovski, 2022: 1014)
    - - Bouzarovski argues that we need to focus less on the individual in the unit, but how we can look at living together and working together within housing.
  - - - This is an environmental trade off for a affordability (causes challenges within the energy trilemma - Bridge et al,. 2018)
    - - Shoukd we be looking at electrifying public forms of transport to make it more acessible and socially just?
      - Low emission zones and charges for higher emission cars is a direct injustice towards people who simply cannot afford a more economically beneficial car
- - - - Energy trilemma
        
        Affordability – is it cost efficient and can all people afford to uphold the prices of energy to heat their home and cook food etc
        
        Security – guaranteed safe access to energy, can be threatened by limited resources, political issues (fallouts between countries, worker strikes, political disputes etc)
        
        Sustainability – can this energy be used in the future with little to no environmental degradation?
        
        Energy transitions are required to achieve these three different aims of security, sustainability and affordability.
        
        The trilemma really frames energy transitions as about moving towards systems that address these different priorities in combination.
        
        To know what the key issues are in different regions or areas, and indicates how each of these issues can pull decision makers on all scales.
      - So they argue that there are three reasons why we need to engage critically with the energy trilemma.
        
        1.) The three goals all involve changes to the status quo and different vested interests (not independent of existing structures). We are starting from a positions where people already have vested interests and reasons for wanting/not wanting change
        
        These include policies, investment from firms, and expectations of citizens. What is our expectation for having energy at our fingertips?
        
        So such changes will create winners and losers, and that will be resisted by those who stand to lose or think they stand to lose for example, fossil fuel companies
        
        2.) Social power is unevenly distributed. Different interest groups have differential power in terms of their ability to shape and influence things
        
        This stands globally, and also nationally at UK level. Large companies bring employment so policy makers can be less harsh
        
        A large energy corporation operating at a global scale has infinitely more power and influence that a citizen grappling with issues of affordability.
        
        3.) Some of the elements are absolutes (e.g. ecosystem integrity) and cannot be traded off - ncessarily involves collaboration, conflict, and cooperation
        
        Some of the elements in the different systems can't be traded off in order to reach a compromise.
        
        So you can't really trade off aspects of environmental sustainability with aspects of energy security, because at some point - the Environment will reach a tipping point
        
        Geographers have highlighted is that there are different ways of framing these challenges, and these have important implications for the solutions we develop.
      - Social Justice
        
        Bridge et al. (2018) argued that it's important to add justice into into the mix, as this is a further framing principle for understanding transitions.
        
        Brings to light the ways that these different dimensions also inequalities and power relations and energy transitions can both resolve and or perpetuate injustices within current social systems.
    - - Many governments around the world are focused on net zero.
      - Net zero encompasses the idea of absorbing emissions still produced through all the different forms of geoengineering (carbon capture, carbon sequestration, tree planting) to offset emissions and allow our populations to not have to change behaviour of lifestyle choices
        
        But real zero is about reducing emissions to zero, full stop (not offsetting a proportion of ongoing emissions.)
        
        Net zero was originally created for the use of processes which cannot be replaced which a low carbon alternative
        
        Once this idea of net zero really took purchase politically, it was used to not take the urgent actions needed and claim technologies that will sort it out.
        
        Stopping organisations from needing to engage with the more politically challenging aspects of behaviour change and demand reduction.
        
        This idea bled into transition plans, which can still be called net zero while still emitting carbon dioxide.
        
        It has been used to really support the continuation of using gas generation or not decarbonising the whole system fast enough. This is locking us into a techno-centric approach.
        
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      - While some activists and scientists and researchers are calling for real zero (absolute zero.)
    - - Perspective that really illustrates how we might think about processes of energy transition, using geographical ideas and concepts,. It's a very prevalent and widely used theory of transition within um energy transitions.
      - They're looking at different levels and different scales but it's really important to not get multilevel perspective confused with multi-level governance.
      - The multi-level perspective is classed as a sociotechnical approach to analysing energy transitions.
        
        This perspective looks at technologies involved in transitions, but it also looks at how technologies co evolve with social processes.
        
        From infrastructures of global economic markets, right down to user practices and everyday lives and the cultural meanings associated and attributed to energy
      - This perspective has three parts:
        
        Landscape
        
        Defines a particular element of the system that is considered as the exogenous contexts (issues outside of the energy system e.g. Climate Change, Neoliberal politics)
        
        Regime
        
        Refers to existing and stable structures within any system that you're looking at. It includes both social and technical elements (energy companies, market structures or gas grid, road network) - status quo changes spatially in terms of materiality and socio-political infrastructure is in place
        
        Niches
        
        Niche refers to innovations, this is where this theory thinks that most change comes from. You need to have change in its inception happening in the niche, which can filter up to destabilise and reconfigure a regime in some way. So niche innovations can be technological, for example, solar PVS, or they can be social and political like forms of community organising (grassroots innovations).
        
        This graph shows how different sectors and different levels interact through a temporal process (phase 1, phase 2 etc) of transition
        
        The theory argues that the transition processes move through these phases, with different things happening in the niche innovation level within the sociotechnical regime and within the landscape level.
        
        And these all interact together to create change.
        
        Is applied to real life examples to explore how technological change has happened through to bigger system level,
        
        1.) In phase one, innovations can emerge in niches.
        
        So on the fringe of existing regimes. Innovation networks sometimes unstable, uncertain or experimental and fragile. (E.g iPhone was once a niche)
        
        2.) In phase two, innovation is moving up.
        
        And the innovation enters small market niches that provides resources for further developments and also specialisation.
        
        Innovations develop a trajectory of their own with the dominant design emerging and with expectations and associated roles
        
        3.) In phase three, those innovations really breaking through to be more widely used
        
        Sometimes, these innovations actually competing head on with an established regime.
        
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        4.) In phase four, it is really characterised by regime substitution.
        
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        (Geels et al., 2017) - Case Example
        The German Electricity Transition
        
        Focus on transitions in renewable energy from 1990-2016 (RETs - renewable energy technologies)
        
        They link these technological changes to key policy and political developments that they argue facilitated the shift from niche to mainstream
        
        1991 - Feed-in Law: obliged utilities to connect new renewable energy connections to the grid and oblige utilities to purchase the solar PV at 90% um, or renewable energy at 90% of the retail price from people who are producing
        
        1998-2005 - Election of the Red-Green coalition: Green Party going to coalition with the Social Democratic Party, it created a favourable political climate for energy transition policy, which led to further developments in 2002.
        
        2002 - Decision to phase out nuclear energy (withdrawn by reinstated in 2011)
        
        2002 - Introduction of the Renewable energy act: fixed the premium of payments for electricity, gas, which is guaranteed over a 20 year period. This also created stability in the markets as well.
        It provided even more support for development and deployment of renewable energy.
        
        2011-2016 - Energiewende: effective framework for energy transition for Germany. Committed Germany to securing 80% of electricity from renewable energy by 2050
        
        Geels et al. argued that these policy changes over time moved renewables from the niche into destabilising the existing regime.
        
        • Phase 1 niche – 1970s and 80s
        
        • Nurturing of RETs through the 1990s – Renewable energy moved out of being completely a niche idea and to intersecting with the regime in some way, resulting insignificant deployment of onshore wind.
        
        • 2005-2011 onwards saw continued growth in RETs and surge in solar PV within Germany
        
        Germany was praised for having major successes for developing low carbon transitions of the electricity sector (solar PV and wind energy).
        
        Geels et al., looked at this transition through the MLP and argued that is happened through different phases that they identified
        
        Landscape level (exogenous influencers)
        
        1970s Oil Crisis - created an early niche for renewable technologies
        
        Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear meltdowns - hardening of pre-existing anti-nuclear sentiment amongst the public and within government
        
        The reunification of Germany after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989
        
        Offered an important opportunity for feed in law to, to be re to be introduced.
        
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        Regime Level
        
        Incumbent large electricity companies – the Big 4 solidify dominance intially
        
        As RETs increasingly threaten make changes to their company structures and plans
        
        But regime backlash leading to a slowing of the transition
        
        In the 2017 paper, they highlight that low carbon transitions have less momentum in passenger transport, looking at whether petroleum fuelled auto mobility regime is still deeply entrenched.
  - - - Primary concerns are the 'unfolding of a temporal process'
        
        "These concerns have tended to circumscribe any formal attention to space, place and geographical scale within conventional transitions theory.“ (Bridge et al., 2013: 333)
      - Bridge et al. discusses some geographical terms that can be used to address energy transitions, particularly those that are missed out when looking at energy transitions on a temporal scale (MLP)
        
        Territoriality- social and political power across space
        
        Spatial differentiation - equalization and differentiation
        
        Spatial differentiation not just about spatial variation but about the production of geographical difference
        
        Relates to justice – not just about about identifying the presence of inequalities across space but looking at how they are created - moving beyond showing that there are differences in distribution and looking towards how and where these disparities are created
        
        Spatial differentiation and energy transitions
        
        Bridge et al. (2013) highlight how energy transitions will create new patterns of uneven development
        
        Convergence (erosion of difference) – growing energy trading, technological diffusion, and the standardization of consumption norms driving growing energy intensity/demand.
        
        Example: Standardisation of indoor temperatures around the world (Shove et al. 2014) Driving demand for not only heating but air conditioning
        
        Example of production of difference – Bridge et al (2013) highlight the implications of transitions for economies predicated on the production or conversion of fossil fuels (e.g. OPEC countries).
        The experience of transition of these countries will be different than countries which the demand for these fuels is seen.
        
        Spatial Differentiation
        The German Energy Transition
        
        The German case can be used to highlight the production of spatial differentiation
        
        e.g. solar PV deployed on a large scale despite Germany not having a particularly significant solar resource.
        
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        Relevant to thinking about how differences are produced through and productive of new forms of uneven development (Bridge et al. 2013)
        
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        Landscape - assemblages of natural and cultural features
        
        Scaling- active phenomenon of technologies /governance
        
        Scaling
        (Bridge et al. 2013)
        
        Scale referring to material size and extent of phenomena (e.g. renewable energy technologies or government)
        
        Scaling denotes this as an active process involving decision-making (Bridge et al. 2013)
        
        There are dominating ways in which energy symptoms are scaled as centralised (large and not controlled by the people)
        
        Assumptions about scale pervade energy systems but are often unacknowledged
        
        Scaling - Decentralising
        German Energy Transitions
        
        Re-scaling in the German case - from the national grid and concentrated ownership to micro-sited generation and distributed ownership
        
        German Government creating mechanisms to support large scale renewable developments, partly about slowing the pace of re-scaling .
        
        Location - absolute and relative
        
        Spatial embeddedness and path dependency
        
        While justice is not defined in these concepts - it is implicit and comes through within the analysis
        
        Landscape as a geographical concept within Bridge et al. 2013
        
        Geographical take on landscape is focused on the material features of an area of land (natural and man made) and the cultural evaluation and the attachments people place onto a piece of land
        
        Landscape and energy transitions
        
        Energy landscapes (from oil fields to wind farms) are a product of social processes and the outcomes of conflict and negotiation
        
        Energy system transitions require the re-appraisal of the form, function and value of familiar landscapes. (Bridge et al. 2013)
        
        Bridge et al. (2013) highlight how low carbon transitions will be experienced by many as the ‘transformation of landscape’
        
        Landscapes dedicated to fossil fuel and methane producing livestock production are be scrutinised by policy makers in ways that they could possibly offset emissions
        
        However, landscapes dedicated to offsetting/sequestering carbon which provide opportunities for green energy, gain a new source of potential value and are targeted markets (the Scottish Highlands for Wind Energy)
        
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        Place attachments and emotional engagements with landscapes are important geographic ideas for understanding responses to changing energy landscapes
        (Bridge et al. 2013)
        
        Policy arenas can sometimes characterise public opposition to wind projects (particularly in the UK) - stemming from NIMBY sentiments that can be reduced to economic self interest
        
        Understanding the emotional embedment to landscape can often lead to a more productive engagement in analysing conflicts over energy
        
        “All resource landscapes rest on claims to property, and the authority to impose and defend a particular form of land use”.
        (Bridge et al. 2018:22)
        
        They suggest oil fields, nuclear plants and wind farms are expressions of the social power to impose energy production as a dominant land use - through deciding how that energy will be captured and where it will be distributed (so whom the resource landscape will actually serve)
        
        Reflects relations of power
        
        Landscape in Transitions
        The German Electricity Transition
        
        The Multi-Level Perspective analysis of the German electricity transition misses any sense of emotional and cultural connections to landscapes that shape people’s responses to change and transition in important ways.
        
        They can affect the effectivity of transitions and their level of just and suitability of the trilemma - let alone challenges that may arise from it
- - - - Many papers aim to re materialise energy in terms of thinking about how energy infrastructures fundamentally reconfigure our lives.
        
        Huber (2015)
        
        Huber examines how the materiality of energy is constitutive in the social production of urbanisation, and the infrastructures that make modern life possible
        
        He uses this to highlight how these particular configurations also create lock in to the existing systems that we have (e.g. transport systems). He uses it to talk about understanding energy systems in this way can help us to think about the problems and challenges of transitions.
        
        Highlighted how electricity networks, gas pipelines, transport networks combine in very specific ways to make particular forms of living, in this case urbanisation and urban living possible.
        
        Hydrogen to fuel our homes and our cars, or for our homes to use the existing gas network infrastructure in a different way that could be low carbon. So instead of natural gas through the gas pipelines, piping hydrogen.
        
        This is being contested, particularly because hydrogen is very difficult at the moment to produce in a low carbon way - and making low carbon hydrogen may just offset original emissions.
        
        Electrification - exchanging one form of energy with another with electronic charging points at petrol stations fitting perfectly into existing infrastructure
        
        Huber also highlights how road networks in the UK have been developed focuses on connecting up urban contexts and the major cities. This greatly influences where people chose to live and what they chose to do
        
        Walker and Cass (2007)
        
        They highlight what is termed as the hyper size ability of renewable energy. So the idea that renewable energy such as solar and wind can be deployed at very large scale (offshore wind farms or large solar farms in the desert), but they can also be developed at much smaller scales as well.
        
        In the paper, they also link those concepts of hyper size ability with different ways of people owning and producing energy - decentralizing energy
        
        They argue this is a distinctive characteristic of renewable energy that is not readily realised by other energy technologies,
        
        Such as rooftop solar or the solar arrays, or simply solar powered electronic device chargers.
        
        The materiality of renewable energy makes different kinds of spatial distributions and scales imaginable (e.g. decentralized)
    - - Geographers have done a huge amount of work to investigate how energy systems have fundamentally reconfigured energy landscapes around the world.
        
        These flows of energy that provide the services we use (warmth and cooling and mobility and computer power) don't exist in abstract forms, so they take the shape and character of particular materials of oil, coal and wood or capturable things such as solar, wind and hydroelectric power
        
        Although, for capturable renewables, a particular landscape is required: places (narrow valleys for hydroelectric dams, uplands for the capture and conversion of wind) - which often isn't where the majority of the population lives
        
        Huber (2015) -
        Energy Sources and Landscapes
        
        Explains how geographers have taken extensive fieldwork based research that examines how different places that are affected and shaped by processes of energy extraction.
        
        Addresses issues including the political ecology of oil in Nigeria.
        
        Social controversies over wind energy in the UK and the US, and also biofuel production space.
        
        Mountaintop removal in Appalachia
        
        Where are the resources are extracted from and who benefits from from them, who consumes them?
        
        Huber (2015) argues that in combination, energy extraction often entails the physical displacement of populations and communities.
        
        Also, those who remain in places who suffer the slow violence of landscape destruction, water contamination and livelihood disruption
        
        He argues that this research as a whole reveals that energy underpinning our lives is often made possible through violence (physical and social) to both human and non-human populations.
    - - People do not relate to energy in the abstract but through specific energy services (such as thermal comfort and mobility - cars, the use of technology)
        
        These are shaped by social and material constructs
        
        Experiences in terms of mobility are really shaped by the distances between our homes and our workplaces, pavements, publics transport etc and the costs
        
        In the case of warmth and cooling, our experiences are shaped by the age and the type of building, how we decide to dress for the temperature, our health, age etc
        
        These are embodied aspects that alter our experiences with interactions with energy systems.
        
        Case study example:
        
        the response from the European Union and the chief executive of the International Energy Agency, Fatih Birol, who in response to the energy crisis and the rise in prices and the shortage of gas within Europe, called on people to turn down their thermostats by one degree.
        
        He's working with an understanding of energy in the abstract, not in the material embodied experiences of people. So if he was drawing on a lot of geographical research, he'd realise that people don't engage their thermostats necessarily in that way.
        
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