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scientific processes - Coggle Diagram
scientific processes
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pilot studies
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identify problems in the design, method or analysis, allowing them to be altered and fixed
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Changes are then made before the full research takes place to try and ensure a higher level of validity
able to identify if is 'worth' the research being conducted by being able to identify is there is a chance of significant results being found
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variables
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operationalisation
clearly defining observable behaviours that represent the more general construct under investigation
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extraneous variables
ptpt effects
variables associated with research ptpts eg.age, gender
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control by experimental design eg.repeated measures, randomly assigning ptpts to conditions and single bind design (do not know aim of study), field experiment or covert observations so unaware of study
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situational variables
variables associated with research situation eg.time of day, lighting
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sampling
random
obtain ptpts by completing list of all members of target population, put names in a hat and pull pout number of names required
strengths- least biased, all ptpts in target population have equal chance of being selected so more representative
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limitations- no guarantee sample representative, may have all males
systematic
obtain ptpts by producing sampling frame (list of ppl in target population), often arranged in alphabetical order then every nth member of list selected eg. every 5th person on register
strengths- avoids researcher bias, no influence over who is chosen
system to selecting ptpts from target population eg. selecting every nth member of the target population
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volunteer
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strengths- quick, easy,cheap to recruit ptpts, can target specific populations
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limitation- biased sample where ptpts may share characteristics (helpfulness, complaint personality), where advert is placed my affect representativeness
stratified
obtain ptpts by identifying how many people make up whole population. identify proportion of people which make up the different sub group (can be expressed as percentage). sample must then contain all these groups in the same proportion as the target population. randomly select the required number from the whole strata
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limitation- identified strata cannot reflect all the ways ptpts are different so not fully representative
opportunity
obtain ptpts by asking people who are available at the time of the study is carried out, and who fit the criteria the researcher is looking for. may simply consist of choosing the first 20 students in the college canteen to complete questionnaire
strengths- convenient, quick, cheap and relatively easy to do
taking the sample from people who are available at the time of the study is carried out and fit for the criteria you are looking for
limitations- biased, type of ptpts available may not be representative of population. researcher bias bc researcher may not include people the do not like look of
ethics/ BPS guidelines
deception
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after research complete ptpts must be debriefed and informed of true aims of investigation and given chance to ask questions. then get consent from ptpts and give opportunity to withdraw
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informed consent
ptpts must be told what they are doing, how long they are doing it and why so they can give informed consent
if no deception, gain consent before research. if deception needed get presumptive consent (ask similar members of target population of out would be okay). parental consent if children being used as ptpts
protection from harm
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if unintentional harm occurs, ptpts should be offered therapy to return them to their original state
reliability
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test-retest
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must be sufficient time between the test and re-test to ensure the ptpt does not recall their answer but not so long their attitutes/opinions/abilities have changed
the 2 sets of scores are correlated using spearmint rho or Pearsons r and a strong positive correlation of +0.8 indicates high reliability
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hypothesis
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precise and testable statement that makes prediction of what is expected to happen in research study
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control
counterbalancing
order effects can be controlled through counterbalancing. ensures each condition is tested first and second in equal amount
divide ptpts in half and ensure one half completes the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order
randomisation
used in the presentation of trials to avoid any systematic errors that the order of the trials might present
random allocation
all ptpts identified by name. names put into a container such as a hat and names are drawn the allocated alternately to condition 1 then condition 2 until all the ptpts have been allocated to a condition
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peer review
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process
work considered in terms of validity, significance, originality and the appropriateness of methods and designs used
reviewer can accept, revise or reject
editor makes final decision whether to accept or reject the search report based on the reviewers comments/reccomendations
problems
subject to publication bias (file drawer problem). means peer review may result in unrepresentative findings being published
takes conservative stance as research that does not 'fit' with previous work may be seen as suspect and rejected. means peer review can slow down process of theory progression and changes to scientific theories can take years
psychological search subjected to the independent scrutiny of scientific research by other psychologists experts in the field
experimental design
matched pairs
strengths- no order effects, reduces ptpt variables
limitations- time consuming to match ptpts, more ptpts required
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control- randomisation, standardisation
repeated measures
strengths-no ptpt variables as acts as own control, fewer pups needed so less time to obtain
limitations- order effects(fatigue, boredom) may lead to poorer performance or practice may lead to improved performance, increased chance of demand characteristics
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control- counterbalancing, randomisation, standardisation
indépendant groups
strengths- no order effects, reduced chance of demand characteristics as only in one condition
limitations- no control of ptpt variables, needs twice as many ptpts
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control- randomisation (randomly allocated to condition), standardisation (standardised procedures)
observational deign
event sampling
strength- useful when target behaviour happens infrequently and could be missed if time sampling used
limitation- may be difficult to record all behaviour if one happen at the same time so important info may be missed
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behavioural categories
behaviours are predefined, and researchers use a tallying system to record the frequency of the observed behaviour
types of validity
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internal validity
refers to whether the effects observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not some other factor
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external validity
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ecological validity
concerns generalising findings from the investigation to other settings, most particularly to everyday life
improve: findings from one setting should be tested in a setting different to the original research setting
temporal validity
concerns whether findings from research that took place at a certain point in time accurately reflect the way that behaviour would occur at a different point in time
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popultion validity
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improve: replicate with other samples, ensure sample is representative, use a larger sample
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demand characteristics
cues in a study that make ptpt aware what is expected of them and make them change their natural behaviour
control by using field experiments, covert observations, single bind design
investigator effects
occur when researchers behaviour influences research in some way like investigators presence changing ptpts behaviour
control by using standardised instructions to prevent leading questions or double bind design where researcher and ptpt doesn't know aim of research