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The state and globalisation - Coggle Diagram
The state and globalisation
1.2 Globalisation
Impact on the state system
Globalisation theories
Hyperglobalisers
Hyperglobalisers view the inevitability of globalisation as a consequence of advances in technology, and feel that humankind is entering a new age
The world can only now become more interconnected, more interdependent and more globalised
The
borderless world
will become a reality as states become irrelevant
Globalisation creates a revolutionary shift in global power - sovereignty will become less relevant with the rise of a global society
Economic integration, instantaneous communication, non-state actors and TNCs challenge the centrality of the state -
state egoism
is no longer the main policy driver
Globalisation drives an integrated global economy with the prospect of prosperity for all
Increasing global governance will at some point become
'world government'
The state has been 'hollowed out' by globalisation - supranational interests challenge territorial integrity and nation states' authority
Hyperglobalisers see this as an
inevitability
, not necessarily as something positive or negative
Criticisms
Hyperglobalisers view national governments as impotent and incapable of determining economic and other policies - however governments still play a large role in states
It is unlikely states would realistically sign up to and follow a world government - state egoism and national culture is still very influential and relevant
It is unlikely a global economy would actually benefit everyone - what about dependency on larger states?
Liberals
Links to hyperglobalisers
Liberals view globalisation as positive due to their focus on international cooperation, which furthers interconnectedness
Globalisation brings trade, prosperity, peace, democracy, political freedoms and human rights - therefore improving standards of living in poorer countries
Liberals support the decline of nation states and the increase in international cooperation
Globalisation encourages global responses to collective dilemmas eg terrorism, the environment
Economic globalisation has decreased the chance of conflict (the
Dell theory of conflict prevention
- war leads to mutually assured economic destruction)
Globalisation sceptics
Economic globalisation is not new, globalisation's threat to the Westphalian system is a myth
International trade and capital flow are not new
Modern globalisation has failed to create a global community or economy
Local, regional and national economies are more significant than an integrated global economy - we are not moving towards global capitalism for the benefit of all
Post-Brexit UK border control challenges the theory that nation states are bound by forces they cannot control - borders are not becoming irrelevant, the state is still a political unit
Eg the Covid pandemic - protectionism and closure of state borders
Criticisms
The UN represents an organisation close to a world government
States have to cooperate to some level to survive in the modern system, otherwise they are essentially rogue (North Korea)
The rise of technology has made the world much more interconnected
Realists
Links to sceptics
Realists believe the state is still the main actor in the international system - support for the UN, human rights law and regional integration encourages instability
Globalisation has been made by states for states - therefore states control the impact of globalisation to a level they are comfortable with
States act in the main interest of their own citizens
Increasing conflict and competition from globalisation lack legitimacy and can make the world less stable
Realists are less committed to global free trade than liberals, as they believe the national economy should be prioritised
Transformationalists
The middle ground between hyperglobalisers and sceptics
Globalisation has had a deep impact on state sovereignty - economic, political and cultural developments have been profound
New stakeholders such as TNCs, NGOs and IGOs continually challenge state sovereignty
However transformationalists do not believe in the decline of the state - rather the state is continually having to adapt, they believe the basic international system has not changed
Eg if a state joins a regional organisation, they do so to advance their national interest, rather than to abandon their sovereignty - states still retain sovereignty and can use this as a negotiating tool
Economic integration has increased the influence of TNCs but states retain the right to determine trade and monetary policy
It can even be argued that sovereignty can be enhanced by globalisation - eg China's global influence has increased dramatically as a result of globalisation as it has exploited demand for exports
Criticisms
Realists
would argue that states still ultimately seek power and are selfish, therefore would be uncomfortable with the idea of states 'having to adapt'
Liberals
would argue this doesn't truly reflect how connected the world now is
Interconnectedness and interdependence
Cost of communication
- a key factor behind globalisation is the rising speed and frequency of communication, mass communication that is virtually instantaneous is now available to billions of people, and the cost of communication has fallen rapidly
Cost of transport
- transportation costs are no longer prohibitive of moving goods around the world, making global supply chains and the international production of goods possible
Human links
- globalisation and economic growth have encouraged workers to move to countries with higher economic development, such as Kuwait and the UAE (over 50% of these countries' populations are now immigrants)
Challenge to state control over citizens
In recent years the emphasis on states as the key actors in the international system has decreased, as a result of the rise of non-state actors, such as TNCs, terrorist organisations, pressure groups and NGOs
It can be argued that states are less likely to be able to exercise their sovereignty in the face of global challenges
Liberals argue that non-state actors can be very influential in the international system today
Impact on development of international law
International law means a set of international norms or standards of international behaviour - this is the behaviour that the community of states has approved of, involving rules over which there is a strong consensus
Even though international law can be difficult to enforce, there are many reasons why states should obey it:
It is in the best interests to do so - obeying the rules makes life more predictable and ordered for everybody
International law can carry a certain legitimacy, and obeying it gives a country
soft power
It is the morally right thing to do - states that believe in the rule of law should practice what they preach
Not obeying international law can lead to a state being isolated or punished - this means that international law can exist and individuals can be held responsible for crimes - eg special tribunals and the ICC
Humanitarian and forcible intervention
It can be argued in the period since the Holocaust, there has been greater support for the idea that the international community should act if crimes against humanity are taking place in another country
Forcible humanitarian intervention assumes there are universal moral absolutes that unite the world - however others argue these are Western inventions and a form of cultural imperialism
Perhaps Western powers use intervention on humanitarian grounds as an excuse to increase their power and further their own national interests, or even as a pretext for the annexation of another state
The use of force to prevent humanitarian catastrophes may lead to the loss of more lives as war escalates - humanitarian intervention can be seen to go against the 'just war' theory, as it is not a last resort and could lead to disproportionate responses and the loss of more lives (eg war on terror/Iraq War)
Forcible humanitarian intervention goes against the principles of state sovereignty, and if the international community increasingly permits humanitarian intervention, it is a challenge to state sovereignty
The
responsibility to protect
doctrine holds that if a state fails to uphold their responsibility to protect its own citizens, the responsibility to protect falls on the international community, allowing for humanitarian intervention through force
The
ICC
is the first permanent international criminal court in the world - although significant global actors including the USA, Russia and China have not signed up to it
The ICC has advanced the concept of a higher international law - the fact that a large number of states have agreed definitions of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity, and have accepted that these crimes can be tried at an international law, suggests that there is less anarchy in the international system and that states are as not sovereign as they once were
The process of globalisation
Interconnectedness: The factors driving globalisation
People
- people travel more freely, easily and cheaply than ever before - also leads to immigration
Countries
- countries are linked by shared rivers, coastlines, seas and oceans - despite state sovereignty
Institutions
- the proliferation of
IGOs
and
NGOs
particularly since the end of WW2 - the UN, WTO, NATO, WHO, Arab League, Amnesty International, WWF, Oxfam, Save the Children
Culture
- cultural diversity is being replaced by
cultural homogeneity
, the same cultural commodities are increasingly being consumed regardless of national borders
Cultural globalisation has been accelerated by the transformation of technology and improvements in transportation
This process has been criticised as
Americanisation
, due to the predominance of US TNCs,
Westernisation
, due to the role of Western companies and culture in this process, and
imperialism
, due to the supposed exploitative and coercive nature of the process
Cultural globalisation has led to a spread of Western ideas globally such as democracy, respect for human rights and individualism
Economics
- economic globalisation is a result of the Bretton Woods economic system, the collapse of communism, advances in technology and transportation, and states' policies of cooperation and free trade in the post-war era
Technology
- news and information from around the world can be relayed instantaneously - social media had a major roles in the uprisings of the Arab Spring where atrocities committed were shared globally, ISIS uses the internet and social media to promote their propaganda
Politics
- political globalisation is the growing significance of international organisations and
global governance
, states are increasingly turning to IGOs such as the UN and the EU to address common issues
States can be seen as encouraging globalisation by pooling their sovereignty with other states
However political globalisation can also be seen as a safeguard against globalisation - states have been hollowed out and are less able to exert their sovereignty in the face of global challenges
1.1 Nation states and national sovereignty
Characteristics of a nation state
State
Political entity with sovereignty
Must be recognised by the international community
Could contain more than one nation or community - eg the UK
Defined territory is needed
States cannot cross the boundaries into other states
Must have a functioning and effective government
Must have a permanent population
Nation
Self-identifying community that does not necessarily have sovereignty
Not necessarily recognised by the international community
Not necessarily possessing a state - eg the Kurds
Defined territory is not needed
Nations can live in more than one state
A group of people who self-identify as belonging to the same group or community, with a strong sense of unity
The individuals may have certain common characteristics - such as territory, language, ethnicity, history, culture or religion
Issues with nationhood and statehood
Nations without a state
- independence movements of the Scottish, and the Basque people and the Catalonians of Spain
National claims that cross borders
- Unionist and Nationalist claims to Northern Ireland, Israeli and Palestinian claims to the same territories, ethnic Russian claims to Eastern Ukraine
States not recognised by other states
- Kosovo, South Ossetia and Transnistria
Nation state
A political community bound together by citizenship and nationality
A state that represents the political wishes of a nation, and therefore gains authority and legitimacy
A self-governing state
A state based on the principle of self-determination
Characteristics of national sovereignty
The state's absolute power over citizens and subjects
The state has absolute power over its citizens and everyone living within its jurisdiction
Sovereignty is defined as absolute and ultimate authority
1.4 Globalisation and contemporary issues
Poverty
Some argue that globalisation has caused poverty - with the transfer of jobs to lower-cost countries, eg outsourcing call centres to India or the production of clothing to the Far East, unemployment can be a consequence in countries that lose those industries - these countries often have very poor working conditions or standards of CSR
The opening up of developing markets to Western competition can damage the local companies and industry - eg the rice industry in Ghana
However others argue that globalisation is lifting countries and people out of poverty - countries that have opened up themselves to trade in recent decades have seen economic growth and the improvement of living standards - however developing countries are often locked into permanent dependency culture on HICs
Developing countries have had an incentive to educate and train their workforce to attract investment
Globalisation has led to greater access to food and medical equipment in developing countries
Global free trade has created new manufacturing jobs in the developing world
Conflict
Economic integration and interdependence has created 'zones of peace' and reduced the risk of invasion - political globalisation has contributed to world peace
Supranational organisations such as the EU which require pooling sovereignty and place limits on nationalism
The UNSC set up special tribunals for war crimes committed during the Yugoslav Wars and the Rwandan genocide - however many argue the UN failed to initially respond to these crises
The US led an invasion into Iraq in 2003 without a UN mandate and in defiance of international law
Human rights
The 2002 Rome Statute set up the ICC which indict and prosecute individuals for war crimes and crimes against humanity (however significant countries such as the USA have not signed up)
The internet allows human rights abuses to be immediately shared and reported - such as George Floyd and human rights abuses during the Arab Spring
The environment
An increase in industrialisation has led to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation
The need for greater energy consumption has led to an increase in oil spill and nuclear disasters - eg Gulf War oil spill in 1991
The 2015 Paris Agreement under the UNFCCC includes 195 states and aims to keep global temperature rise below 1.5° (however Iran, Libya and Yemen have not ratified the agreement)
1.3 Debates about the impact of globalisation
The impact of globalisation and its implication for the nation state and national sovereignty
Some argue that due to globalisation, the state can no longer be realistically considered sovereign
While the state still has de jure (legal) sovereignty, the realities of the 21st century suggest that states are impotent or powerless in the face of global and regional challenges
Increasingly states are considered by some to be post-sovereign - states no longer have the ability to actually exercise their sovereignty
Liberals argue that the state is not sovereign, whereas realists believe that the decline of the state is exaggerated and that states are still the most legitimate actors in the global system
Liberals argue that due to creation of a single global economy, states are no longer the sovereign bodies they used to be, no state can isolate itself from global economic challenges
There is an increasing trend for decisions affecting states to be taken at global or regional levels, such as in the UN, IMF and the EU
Decisions about economics, trade and the environment are taken at these institutions, rendering the nation state a less significant actor, and reducing its sovereignty
Decisions taken by the ECtHR and the WTO can also impact on the sovereignty of a state