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Theories of development. - Coggle Diagram
Theories of development.
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Mechanisms: Include the central nervous system, hormones, neurotransmitters, and sensory/motor neurons.
Neuropsychology: An expanding field, using advanced tools to study the connections between the brain and development.
- Psychodynamic perspective.
Central idea: Our unconscious mind, shaped by early childhood experiences, powerfully influences our behaviour and personality development.
Founder: Sigmund Freud, though it has been expanded upon since his time.
Early experiences matter: Emphasises that childhood experiences deeply impact our personalities, even if we aren't consciously aware of them.
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Unconscious vs. Conscious: Much of our mental life is below the surface of awareness, driving our behaviours in ways we might not fully understand.
Beyond Freud: While Freud's theory is controversial, concepts like the influence of the unconscious and the importance of early experiences retain relevance.
- Behaviouristic perspective.
Central idea: Development is shaped by our environment and how we learn through interactions with it.
Focus: Observable behaviours, rather than internal thoughts or feelings.
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Central idea: Development is centred on changes in how we think, reason, and problem-solve. Our internal mental processes drive development.
Focus: How kids actively construct their understanding of the world, rather than passively absorbing information.
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Kids as active learners: Kids are viewed as scientists, experimenting and trying to make sense of their surroundings.
Mental schemas: As we develop, we create schemas to organise information, which becomes more complex over time.
Focus on change: Cognitive theorists are interested in the qualitative shifts in how kids thank at different stages, not just gradual increases in ability.
Central idea: Development is inseparable from the social relationships and cultural context where a kid grows up.
Focus: How interactions with others, social roles, and cultural values shape a kid's understanding of themselves and the world.
Key theorists.
Vygotsky: Sociocultural theory emphasises learning as a collaborative process within a cultural context.
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We are social beings: Development isn't just individual changes, it's about being a participant in our social world.
Reciprocal influences: Kids influence and are influenced by their environment. Interactions with others is key.
Culture matters: Values, beliefs, and practices held within a culture shape a kid's experiences and shape development.
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Aspects of development, from physical growth to cognitive abilities, is influenced by biological makeup.
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- Psychodynamic perspective.
Psychodynamic vs. Psychoanalytic: Psychodynamic psychology builds on Freud's psychoanalytic theory, but encompasses a broader range of perspectives focused on conscious and unconscious influences.
Freud's legacy: Freud's work led to his realisation that unconscious motives strongly influence behaviour. He postulated the existence of the id, ego, and superego.
Focus on the unconscious: Much of our mental life occur below conscious awareness - unresolved conflicts and desires can manifest in various ways.
Defense mechanisms: In internal conflicts, we employ tactics like repression, denial, or sublimation to manage them.
Developmental stages: Freud's psychosexual stages of development highlight the potential for fixations when conflicts at specific stages remain unresolved.
- Freud's psychosexual stages.
Key idea: Freud theorised that kids progress through stages defined by a focus on specific erogenous zones, with potential fixation shaping personality.
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Focus on the mouth (sucking, biting).
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- Genital (Puberty onward).
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- Freud's contributions and critiques.
Contributions.
Unconscious motivation: Highlighted the influence of unconscious thoughts and desires on behaviour, shifting focus beyond purely conscious experience.
Early experience matters: Emphasised the long-term impact of childhood experiences on development, even if the nature of such impact is debated.
Critiques.
Lack of scientific rigor: Relied on case studies and subjective interpretation, lacking empirical support.
Biased views on women: His concepts reflected the social limitations of his time and have been challenged.
Overemphasis on sexuality: Fixations on psychosexual stages and the Oedipus/Electra complex are considered an overly reductive view of complex development.
Challenges to generalisability: Freud's doesn't apply universally, limiting its overall validity.
Shift in focus: Emphasised social and cultural factors as central to development, moves away from Freud's biological and sexual emphasis.
Lifespan perspective: Theorised that development is a lifelong process while Freud focused on childhood.
Psychosocial crises: Each of the eight stages presents a unique developmental challenge, shaping personality based on how social conflicts are resolved.
Role of the unconscious: Acknowledged the unconscious mind but placed less importance on it compared to Freud's focus on instinctual drives.
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 months - 3 years): Gaining independence or feeling self-doubt.
- Initiative vs. Guilt (3 - 6 years): Taking initiative or experiencing guilt if overly controlled.
- Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth - 18 months): Developing basic trust in caregivers.
- Industry vs. Inferiority (6 - 12 years): Developing competence or feeling inadequate.
Theorised that individuals face a unique psychosocial crisis at each stage. How these crises are resolved shapes development.
- Identity vs. Role confusion (Adolescence): Finding a sense of self or facing identity confusion.
- Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood): Forming close bonds or facing loneliness.
- Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood): Contributing to society or feeling unproductive.
- Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood): Finding meaning and satisfaction or facing regret.
Central idea: Behaviourist perspective emphasises the role of environmental factors in shaping observable behaviours. Development is driven by learning through interactions.
The Tabula Rasa: People are initially seen as having no innate predispositions. Behaviour is entirely a product of environmental experiences.
Focus on learning: Behaviourists study how associations, reinforcements, and punishments modify behaviour.
Founder: Ivan Pavolv, known for his experiments with dogs and salivation.
Central idea: A neutral stimulus can be paired with a stimulus that triggers a response to elicit the same response even without the original trigger.
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B. F. Skinner's focus: Skinner studied observable behaviours and how they're shaped by environmental consequences.
Operant conditioning: A type of learning where behaviours are strengthened or weakened based on the consequences.
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- Focus on observable behavior.
Rejecting the unseen: Watson only studied observable behaviours, dismissing the unconscious or internal mental processes as unscientific.
Habits as building blocks: Watson viewed development as a process of acquiring habits - associations between stimuli and responses.
Tabula Rasa: He believed we begin life with no innate tendencies, and development is shaped by the environment.
Little Albert Experiment: Watson and Rayner induced fear of a white rat in a baby by repeatedly pairing it with a loud noise to demonstrate classical conditioning.
- Limitations of behaviourism.
Oversimplification of development: It fails to account for the complexity of development. It neglects the role of internal mental processes which impact how we learn and behave.
Advances in technology: Modern neuroscience tools allow the study of once-hidden mental processes. These challenge the strict behaviourist view.
Chomsky's critique of language learning: Noam Chomsky argued that language acquisition can't be explained solely by environmental learning. He thought kids have an innate language acquisition device (LAD).
Adaptation as learning: Influenced by biology, Piaget viewed learning as an active process of adaptation. Kids construct schemas through interacting with the environment.
Universal stages of development: He proposed that kids progress through the same distinct stages, marked by shifts in how they understand the world.
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Focus on how kids think: Piaget investigated how thinking changes qualitatively, not merely increased knowledge.
- How kids construct knowledge.
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Stages of development: Piaget proposed universal stages where kid's thinking is qualitatively different at each stage.
Active learners: Kids aren't passive; they actively build understanding through interacting with the environment.
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Equilibrium: Seeks a balance between assimilation and accommodation to achieve cognitive equilibrium and make sense of the world.
- Stages of cognitive development.
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- Vygotsky's sociocultural theory.
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Emphasis on language: Verbal interactions are critical for internalising knowledge and developing higher-order thinking.
Learning is collaborative: Kids learn best through guided interactions with more knowledgeable others.
- Vygotsky's zone of proximal development.
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Optimal learning: Instruction is most effective when tailored to the kid's ZPD, providing just enough challenge to promote growth.
Scaffolding: Adults or more skilled peers provide assistance, gradually withdrawing support as the kid gains mastery.
- The role of emotions and feelings in Vygotsky's theory.
Positive feelings: Enhance focus, motivation, and memory.
Negative feelings: Hinder learning, decrease motivation.
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The more knowledgeable other's role: Create a supportive environment, acknowledge feelings, and adjust learning experiences accordingly to optimise the ZPD.
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- Key concepts in Vygotsky's theory.
General genetic law: Higher mental functions begin as social interactions and then become internalised.
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- Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory.
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Five systems.
Microsystem: Kid's direct environment (family, peers, school).
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Exosystem: Settings indirectly influencing the child (parent's workplace, community).
Macrosystem: Overarching culture, values, and laws.
Chronosystem: Changes over time (historical events, life transitions).
- Bronfenbrenner's relevance for learning and development.
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Addressing inequality: Understanding exosystem and macrosystem influences helps advocate for policies promoting kid's well-being.
Embracing diversity: The theory encourages respect for diverse cultures and the inclusion of different perspectives in learning.
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Implications.
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Understanding aggression: Exposure to violence can increase a kid's likelihood of learning aggressive behaviours.
Building confidence: By fostering positive experiences and supportive feedback, adults can boost kids' self-efficacy, leading to greater motivation and achievement.